T23. HIGHER FUNCTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Question 1

What are the three major levels of the central nervous system?

Answer 1

Spinal cord level Lower brain (Subcortical level)

Question 2

What is the function of the cerebral cortex neurons?

Answer 2

They control all conscious mental activity: thinking remembering

Question 3

How is the cerebral cortex organized anatomically?

Answer 3

It has layers of different cell types forming connections with cortical and subcortical regions.

Question 4

Which layers of the cerebral cortex contain granular cells?

Answer 4

Layers II and IV

Question 5

Which layers of the cerebral cortex contain pyramidal cells?

Answer 5

Layers III and V

Question 6

What is the function of granular cells in the cerebral cortex?

Answer 6

They act as interneurons with short axons some excitatory (glutamate)

Question 7

Where are granular cells found in high concentration?

Answer 7

In sensory areas and association areas between sensory and motor regions.

Question 8

What is the function of pyramidal cells in the cerebral cortex?

Answer 8

They give rise to nearly all output fibers projecting to the spinal cord and subcortical areas.

Question 9

What are the three functional categories of cortical areas?

Answer 9

Primary and secondary motor areas primary and secondary sensory areas

Question 10

What is the function of association areas in the cerebral cortex?

Answer 10

They analyze signals from multiple motor sensory

Question 11

What are the main association areas in the cerebral cortex?

Answer 11

Parieto-occipital temporal area Prefrontal area

Question 12

What is the function of the parieto-occipital temporal association area?

Answer 12

Provides interpretative meaning for signals from surrounding areas

Question 13

What are the subareas of the parieto-occipital temporal association area?

Answer 13

Spatial coordinates of the body and Wernicke’s area for language comprehension

Question 14

What is the function of the prefrontal association area?

Answer 14

Plans complex motor movements and elaborates thoughts

Question 15

What is Broca’s area and where is it located?

Answer 15

In the prefrontal association area; it provides the neural circuitry for word formation

Question 16

What is the function of the limbic association area?

Answer 16

Forms memories and translates them into motor responses; important for personality and social interaction

Question 17

How is motor control lateralized in the cerebral cortex?

Answer 17

Each side of the precentral gyrus controls movement on the opposite (contralateral) side of the body

Question 18

How is somatosensory input organized in the cerebral cortex?

Answer 18

Each side of the body projects to the contralateral postcentral gyrus

Question 19

What structure allows communication between cerebral hemispheres?

Answer 19

Corpus callosum

Question 20

What are the specializations of the right hemisphere?

Answer 20

Visuospatial tasks recognizing faces

Question 21

What are the specializations of the left hemisphere?

Answer 21

Language speech

Question 22

What functions are included in language?

Answer 22

Reading writing

Question 23

What is Broca’s area responsible for?

Answer 23

Motor aspects of speech

Question 24

What is Broca’s aphasia?

Answer 24

Slow poorly articulated speech with no loss of understanding; other oral motor functions are intact

Question 25

What is Wernicke’s area responsible for?

Answer 25

Understanding spoken and written language

Question 26

What is Wernicke’s aphasia?

Answer 26

Rapid meaningless speech; comprehension of language is destroyed

Question 27

How does the brain coordinate speech?

Answer 27

Word comprehension in Wernicke’s area → sent to Broca’s area → sent to motor cortex to move muscles

Question 28

What is a thought in terms of neural activity?

Answer 28

A pattern of stimulation across multiple brain areas: cortex thalamus

Question 29

What is consciousness?

Answer 29

Awareness of our surroundings or thoughts

Question 30

Which brain regions are involved in memory formation?

Answer 30

Hippocampus caudate nucleus

Question 31

What is the role of the cerebellum in memory?

Answer 31

Learning of motor skills

Question 32

What is the role of the amygdala in memory?

Answer 32

Retention of emotional memory

Question 33

What is short-term memory?

Answer 33

Memory of recent events; can be consolidated into long-term memory

Question 34

What is long-term memory?

Answer 34

Memory requiring actual structural changes in synapses

Question 35

What is the neural mechanism of short-term memory?

Answer 35

Recurrent circuits of neurons synapsing on each other in a loop

Question 36

What disrupts short-term memory?

Answer 36

Interruption of the recurrent circuit

Question 37

What is required for long-term memory?

Answer 37

Relatively permanent changes in synapses

Question 38

What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?

Answer 38

Increased excitability of synapses after high-frequency stimulation

Question 39

What neurotransmitter is involved in LTP in the hippocampus?

Answer 39

Glutamate

Question 40

What receptors are involved in LTP?

Answer 40

AMPA and NMDA receptors for glutamate

Question 41

What happens when glutamate binds to AMPA receptors?

Answer 41

Na+ enters the postsynaptic neuron depolarizing the membrane

Question 42

How is the NMDA receptor activated?

Answer 42

Depolarization removes Mg2+ block allowing Ca2+ and Na+ to enter

Question 43

What enzyme is activated by Ca2+ in LTP?

Answer 43

CaMKII (Calcium-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II)

Question 44

What are the effects of CaMKII activation?

Answer 44

More AMPA receptors are inserted increasing sensitivity to glutamate

Question 45

What structural change does CaMKII promote?

Answer 45

Growth of dendritic spines with AMPA receptors

Question 46

What is the retrograde messenger involved in LTP?

Answer 46

Likely nitric oxide (NO)

Question 47

What does the retrograde messenger do in LTP?

Answer 47

Changes the presynaptic axon to release more glutamate

Question 48

Where are neural stem cells found in the brain? In the hippocampus

Question 49

What is the suspected role of neurogenesis in the brain?

Answer 49

It contributes to learning

Question 50

What promotes neurogenesis in mice?

Answer 50

Physical activity and enriched environments

Question 51

What reduces neurogenesis?

Answer 51

Aging and stress

Question 52

How do emotions affect memory?

Answer 52

They can either strengthen or weaken memory formation

Question 53

What brain region is involved in emotional memory?

Answer 53

Amygdala

Question 54

How does stress affect memory?

Answer 54

It impairs memory formation in the hippocampus