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Biology 205 > Test 3 > Flashcards

Test 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Missense mutation

A

different amino acid is encoded

  • less functional or faulty protein
  • protein that worked differently
  • no alteration in protein function
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2
Q

Point mutations

A

addition, deletion or substitution of a single base

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3
Q

Nonsense mutatio

A

changes a normal codon into a stop codon

-almost always results in non-functional protein

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4
Q

silent mutation

A

base changes, but same amino acid is included - due to redundancy in genetic code

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5
Q

Frameshift mutation

A

additions or deletions change the reading frame

-almost always result in non-functional protein

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6
Q

Phtoactivation

A

UV damaged DNA is repaired by photoactivation

  • the enzyme DNA photolayse detects, attaches to, and repairs damaged area
  • light is required, sevvere damage cannot be repaired this way
  • type of excision repair
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7
Q

Xeroderma pigmentosa

A

genetic disease in which patients have no excision repair mechanism, theydevelop severe skin cancers with very little sun exposure

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8
Q

Excision repair

A

mutations can be excised with special enzymes that remove incorrect bases and replace them with the right ones

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9
Q

Mutations

A

Changes made to the DNA

  • Spontaneous: random change
  • Induced: chemical radiation
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10
Q

Specific mutation examples

A

point: change a single base
nonsense: change a normal codon into a stop codon
Frameshift: reading frame of the mRNA changes

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11
Q

Point mutation

A

change in a single base, the reading frame is not affected, but the mutation may be either expressed or silent

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12
Q

Frame-Shift

A

the deletion or addition of one or more bases. these mutations change the reading frame of all downstream codons

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13
Q

Error rate

A

mutations caused by errors in synthesis of DNA: 1 error every 10^3 or 10^4 nucleotides

pro/eukaryotic: 1 error every 10^9 or 10^10 nucleotides

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14
Q

light repair

A

Prokaryotes

- can repair thymine dimers induced by UV light

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15
Q

Dark repair

A

can identify and excise defective DNA and replace the defective DNA with the correct sequence based on the template strand

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16
Q

recombination

A

an even in which one bacterium donates genetic information to another

  • transformation
  • transduction
    - conjugation
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17
Q

Transformation

A

free DNA, nonspecific acceptance of free DNA by the cell (DNA fragments, plasmids), DNA can be inserted into the chomosomes, competent cells readily accept DNA

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18
Q

Transduction

A
  • Bacteriophage infect host cells and is specific to bacterial host
  • serve as the carrier of DNA from a donor cell to a recipient cell
    • generalized/specific
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19
Q

Lysogenic cycle

A

phage genome recombines into the bacterial genome and becomes a prophage
lysogenic phages are specialized transducing phages and can transduce only specific regions of the bacterial genome

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20
Q

Generalized

A

generalized transducing phages undergo a lytic cycle and are capable of transducing any par of the donors genetic information
- random event

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21
Q

Conjugation

A

transfer of plasmid DNA from f+ (f factor) cell to a f- cell
an f+ bacterium possesses a pilus
pilus attaches to the recipient cell and creates pore for the transfer DNA
High frequency recombination (Hfr) donors contain the f factor in the chromosome

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22
Q

F` plasmida

A

are created when the Hfr plasmid recombines out of the bacterial genome imprecisely and carries with it a segment of the bacterial genome. that segment can then be transferred to a recipient cell as in F+ conjugation

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23
Q

Significance of Conjugation

A
  • in Hfr conjucation significant amounts of genetic material may be transferred
  • genetic information including determinants of pathology or antimicrobic resistance may be transferred cell to cell
  • Hfr conjucation is an excellent procedure to map genes of conjugable bacteria
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24
Q

Enzyme

A

restriction endonuclease, ligase, reverse transcriptase (cDNA)

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25
Q

Restriction endonuclease

A
  • originates in bacterial cells
  • many different types
  • nautral function is to protect the bacterium from foreign DNA (bacteriophage)
  • recognizes 4-10 base pairs (palindromic sequence, identical in 5-3 or 3-5)
  • cleaves DNA at the phosphate-sugar bond
  • used in the cloning method
  • Example” EcoRI from escerichia coli
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26
Q

Ligase

A
  • linkDNA fragments
  • rejoin the phosphate sugar bond
  • used in the cloning method
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27
Q

Reverse transcriptase

A

Converts RNA to DNA

  • Ex.complimentary DNA (cDNA)
    • required for eukaryotic gene expression
    • mRNA to cDNA
    • no introns are present
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28
Q

Electrophoresis

A
  • separation of DNA based on size
  • negative charge DNA (phosphate grou) migrates to positive electrode
  • characterizing DNA fragment size and fingerprinting
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29
Q

Hypridization and probes

A
  • DNA hybridize with DNA, DNA with RNA, RNA with RNA
  • probes: small stretches of nucleic acid with a known sequence called an “oligonucleotide”, single stranded, detects specific nucleotide sequences in unknown nucleic acid samples
  • southern blot: method for detecting an unknown sample of DNA, incorporates restriction endonuclease, electrophoresis, denaturing, probing and visual detection
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30
Q

Flourescent in sit Hybridization

A

(FISH)

used to identify virus inclusions with in host cell

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31
Q

sequencing

A

provide the identity and order of nucleotides (bases)

Method: sanger method

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32
Q

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

A
  • specific amplification of DNA
  • involves a denaturing, priming (annealing), and extension cycle
  • 30 cycles are sufficient for detection of DNA
  • can be used to detect disease or infectious agents
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33
Q

Recombinant

A
  • when a cloning host receves a vector containing the gene of interest
  • A single cloning host containing the gene of interest is called a clone
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34
Q

Cloning vectors

A

readily accepted DNA by the cloning host
origin of replication
contain a selective antibiotic resistance gene
plasmids or phages

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35
Q

Desirable characteristics of cloning host

A
  • fast growth
  • large quantaties
  • nonpathogenic
  • accepts vectors
  • keeps foriegn genes through successive generations
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36
Q

applications

A

protein production, alter organisms normal function, source of DNA synthesis

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37
Q

Modified bacteria

A
  • Pseudomonas syringae: prevents frost crystals from forming on plants
  • Pseudomonas fluorescens: contains an insecticide gene
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38
Q

Transgenic plants

A

Agrobacterium tumefaciens: Ti plasmid contains gene of interest, and is integrated into plant chromosome
Example: tobacco, garden pea, rice

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39
Q

Transgenic animals

A

knockout mouse

  • tailor-made genetic defects
    - cystic fibrosis, Gauchers disease, Alzheimers disease, sickle-cell anemia
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40
Q

Gene therapy

A
  • repair a genetic defect by Ex vivo or In vivo strategy

- severe immunodeficiency disease, cystic fibrosis, sicke anemia, hemophelia

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41
Q

Antisense and triplex DNA

A

Antisense RNA or DNA: prevent the sysnthesis of an unwanted protein, targets mRNA
Triplex DNA: prevents transcription, targets double stranded DNA

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42
Q

Maps

A
  • determine the location of particular genes (locus) on the chromosome
  • Determine differences in chromosomal regions (alleles),genomic and bioinformatic
43
Q

Types of maps

A

Linkage: shows the relative proximity and location of genes
Physical: shows the proximity and size of genes
Sequence: shows the exact order of bases

44
Q

Fingerprinting

A
  • emphasizes the differences in the entire genome
  • technique are endonucleases, PCR, and southern blot
  • uses: forensic medicine, identify heriditary disease
45
Q

Static agents

A

Temporarily preventing the growth of microbes

  • bacteriostatic
  • fungistatic
46
Q

Cital

A

killing or destroying a microorganism

  • germicide
  • bacteriocide
47
Q

Resistance

A

Highest: bacterial spores and prions
Moderate: some bacteria protozoan cycts, fungal sexual spores, naxed viruses
Least: most bacteria, fungal nonsexual spores and hyphae, enveloped viruses, yeast, protozoan trophoites

48
Q

Sterilization

A

the complete killing of all microorganisms in a material or on an object

49
Q

Antispetics

A

are generally applied to living organisms to destroy microorganisms or limit their growth

50
Q

Disinfectants

A

are typically applied to inanimate objects to reduce the number of pathogenic organisms

51
Q

A concept

A

the number of organisms present at the beginning affects the time needed to achieve disinfection

52
Q

Heat control

A

Dry heat: 171 Celsius for one hour, dehydration, denaturation, oxidation
Moist heat: autoclave (121 Celsius), coagulation of proteins, denaturation of proteins

53
Q

Steam and Pressure

A
  • pressure above normal will result in temperatures above 100 Celsius
  • effectively destroys spores
  • sterilizes inanimate objects
54
Q

Pasterurization

A

disinfection of liquids, 71.6 Celsius for 15 seconds, stops fermentation, prevents milk-borne diseases

55
Q

cold and dessication effects

A
  • cold temperatures reduce activity of microbes (not psychrophiles)
  • dessication (dehydration) kill some microorganisms
  • Lyophilization
56
Q

Types of radiation

A

Ionizing: gammarays (high), x-rays (moderate), Cathode (least)
nonionizing:ultraviolet

57
Q

Applications of radiation

A

Ionizing: alternative sterilization method, materials sensitive to heat or chemicals, some foods (fruit, vegtables, meats)
Nonionizing: alternative disinfectant, germicidal lamp in hospitals, schools, food preparation areas

58
Q

Filtration

A

Removes microbes and spored from liquids and air, perforated membrane- pore sizes vary
-applications: liquids that are sensitive to heat (serum, vaccines, media)

59
Q

Chemical control applications

A

Halogens, alcohols, surfactants, hydrogen peroxide, detergents and soaps, heavy metals, aldehydes, gases, dyes, acids, alkalis, phenolics

60
Q

Halogens

A

Chlorine: disinfectant and antiseptic (disrupt sulfhydryl groups in amino acids)
Iodine: topical antiseptic (disruption similar to chlorines)

61
Q

Alcohol

A

ethyl alcohol, isopropyl (70% concentration dissolve membrane lipids, disrupt cell survace tension, denatures proteins
-germicidal and skin degerming

62
Q

hydrogen peroxids

A

colorless and caustic liquid, form hydroxyl free radicals (effective against anaerobes), skind and wound cleaner, quick method for sterilizing medical equipments

63
Q

Heavy metals

A

mercury, silver….

- inactivate proteins, preservatives in cosmetics and ophthalmic solutions

64
Q

Selective toxicity

A

drugs that specifically target microbial processes and not the human host

65
Q

Antibiotics

A

kill or inhibit growth of bacteria, usually mold-type fungi (penicillium, Cephalosporium)
-certain strains of Bacillus (bacitracin)

66
Q

Broad/Narrow Spectrum

A

Broad: treatment is effective against a wide variety of different types of microorganisms (Gram +/-)

Narrow: treatment is effective against a limited number of similar microorganisms

67
Q

5 general mechanisms of action for antibiotics

A 
inhibition of cell wall synthesis
disruption of cell membrane function
inhibition of protein synthesis
inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis
anti-metabolic activity
68
Q

Penicillin

A

Penicillium chrysogenim

  • a diverse group (1st, 2nd, 3rd genertation)
  • natural (penicillin G and V)
  • semisynthetic(ampicillin, amoxicillin)

Structure: Beta-lactam ring, variable side chain (R group)

69
Q

Cell wall antibiotics

A

Penicillin, methicillin, oxacillin, ampicillin, carbenicillin, cephalosporins and cycloserine

they block transpeptidation which is necessary for cross-linked peptidoglycan in cell wall

70
Q

protein synthesis medicines

A

Aminoglycosides: binds the 30s ribosomes, misreads mRNA
Tetracyclines: Binds the 30s ribosome, blocks attachment of tRNA to A site
Chloramphenicol: binds 50s ribosome, prevents peptide bond formation

71
Q

Antimetabolites

A

act either through competitive inhibition or erroneous incorperation- moleculat mimicry

  • Sulfonamides: block synthesis of folic acid- and as a result, nucleic acid synthesis
  • Isoniazid: antimetabolite for two vitamins
72
Q

Other antimicrobials

A

Antiprotozoan: metronidazole (flagyl)-most are fairly toxic-black hairy tongue, treat Giardia and amebiasis
Antimalarial: Quinine
Antihelminthic: mebandazole, tapeworms and round worms, blocks microtubule formation, starves the worms

73
Q

Nucleic acid synthesis prevention

A

Chloroquine: binds and cross-links the double helix
Other quinolones inhibit DNA, unwinding enzymes and block replication
-Ciprofloxacin

74
Q

Antiviral

A
  • very few
  • difficult to maintain selective toxicity
  • effective drugs: target viral replication cycle
    - entry, nucleic acid, assembly/release
  • Interferon (IFN): artificial antiviral drug
75
Q

Resistance factors

A

R-plasmids
- transformation, conjugation, transduction
- transposons
5 main mechanisms of resistance

76
Q

5 mechanisms of resistance for microorganisms

A 
alteration of targets
alteration of membrane permiability
development of enzymes
efflux pumps
alteration of metabolic pathways
77
Q

Defense mechanisms

A

Innate: nonspecific, first and second line
Acquired: specific, third line

78
Q

First line

A

Barrier
Anatomical: Skin, Mucous membrane
Chemical: sebaceous secretions, tears and saliva contain lysozyme, acidic pH from sweat-stomach-skin-semen-vaginal biota

79
Q

Immunology

A

the study of the development of resistance to infectious agents by the body

  • surveillance of the body
  • recognition of forgein material
  • destruction of foreign material or agens
80
Q

White Blood Cell

A

recognize self markers on the host cell
- do not attack or do not respond to host cell
WBC recognize non-self markers on the invading microbe
- attack or respond to microbe
-PAMPs, DAMPs

81
Q

Hemopoiesis

A

production of blood

  • starts at the embryonic stage (yolk sac and liver)
  • continues during adult stage
  • hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow, mostly of the long bones
82
Q

Leukocytes

A 
Granulocytes
-neutrophils
-basophils
-eosinophils
Agranulocytes
-T cells
-B cells
-Monocytes
83
Q

Neutrophil

A
  • high numbers
  • phagocytizes bacteria-granules contain digestive enzymes
  • first to arrive during an immune respone (inflammation)
84
Q

Eosinophils

A
  • contain granules with hydrolytic enzymes
  • attach and destroy large eucaryotic pathogens (worms)
  • assists with inflammation and allergies
85
Q

Basophil

A
  • low numbers
  • involved in allergic reactions (similar functions as eosinophils)
  • localized basophils are caled mast cells
  • contain lots of vasodialating histamine
86
Q

Lymphocyte

A

Specific immunity
-T cells: cellular immunity
-B cells: humoral/ antibody immuity
third line of defense

87
Q

Monocyte

A

agranulocyte

  • differentiate into macrophages (circulation and lymphatics) and dendretic cells (tissue associated)
  • involved in phagocytosis
88
Q

Lymphatic system

A

connected to the blood stream, auxiliary route for the return of extracellular fluid to the curculatory system, contains lymphocytes-phagocytes-and antibodies

89
Q

Contents of the lymphatic system

A 
Fluids
Vessels
Nodes
Spleem
Thymus
GALT and tonsils
90
Q

Galt

A

gut associated lymphoid tissure

  • recognized incoming microbes from foos
  • supply lymphocytes for antibody response
91
Q

second line of defense

A

Inflammation, phagocytosis, interferon, complement

92
Q

Inflammation

A
  • Redness, Warmth, Swelling, Pain
  • mobilize and attract immune components to the site of injury
  • localize and remove harmful substances
  • destroy microbes and block their invasion
  • aid in the repair of tissue damage
93
Q

Fever

A
  • caused by pyrogens
  • pyrogens: microbes and their products, luekocyte products
  • inhibit microbe and viral multiplication, reduces nutrient availability, increases immune reactions
94
Q

Phagocytosis

A

Neutrophils: first to arrive during inflammation (primary componant of puss)
Monocytes/Macrophages

95
Q

mechanism of phagocytosis

A

chemotaxis
ingestion
phagolysosome
destruction

96
Q

Chemotaxis

A
  • pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)
  • Polly matzinger (PAMPs and DAMPs)
    • peptidoglycan and LPS
  • Forgein debris
  • intracellular elements
97
Q

ingestion

A

pseudopods enclose the pathogen or foreign maerial

-form a phagosome or phagocytic vacuole

98
Q

phagolysosome

A

lysosomes fuse with the phagosome

-other antimicrobials chemicals are released into the phagolysosome (hydrogen peroxide)

99
Q

destruction

A

withing the phagolysosome
- oxygen dependent mechanisms
-oxygen independent mechansism
undigestible debris are release

100
Q

Interferon

A

Produced due to viral infections, microbe infections, RNA, immune products and antigens

101
Q

Interferon classes

A

Alpha: production of lymphoytes and amcrophages
Beta: products of fibroblasts and epithelial cells
Gamma: product of T cells

102
Q

Complement

A

produced by liver hepatocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes

  • inflammation: C3a,C4a,C5a
  • opsonization: C3b
  • MAC killing: C5-C9
103
Q

Pathways

A

Classical: activated by the presence of antibody bound to microbes
Lectin: activated when a host serum protein binds a sugar (mannan) in the wall of fungi and other microbes
Alternative: activated when a compleent proteins bind to cell wall or surface components of microbes

104
Q

Stages

A

Initiation
Amplification and Cascade
Polymerization
Membrane attack complex (MAC)

Biology 205 (1 decks)

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