Text book begining Flashcards
1
Q
What is the most obvious form of urban change ?
A
The growth of urban areas.
2
Q
Does Urban decay affect whole towns and cities?
A
Fortunately the converse, urban decay, rarely effects whole towns and cities but is found in localised pockets.
3
Q
What does the term urban change cover?
A
Urban growth and decay are only one mode of urban change.
In fact, the term ‘urban change’ covers many changes which are happening today at a range of spatial scales, from global to local.
They are also occurring at a variety of different speeds.
Of these changes, the most important are those occurring globally.
4
Q
Compare two statistics, from different times of how many people lived and worked in towns and cities.
A
In 1800, only 5 per cent of the world’s population lived and worked in towns and cities.
Today, roughly 50 per cent of the global population is reckoned to be urban, and by 2030 the figure is expected to rise to 60 per cent.
5
Q
How have the rates of urbanisation shifted across the world?
A
One hundred years ago, the fastest rates of urbanisation occurred in what is often described as the Developed World – i.e. the MEDCs.
Today, the fastest rates of urbanisation are taking place in the LEDCs of the so-called Developing World.
The shift is forecast to continue well past 2030.
6
Q
How are large cities changing in their distribution?
A
The majority of them are to be found in the Developing World, particularly south and south-east Asia.
7
Q
How many big cities are there?
A
There are 17 with populations greater than 10 million.
Below them, there are cities with populations between 5 and 10 million.
8
Q
What is it called when cities are engulfing other towns and cities.
A
They form vast urban agglomerations.
9
Q
Give some examples of mega-cities.
A
Among these ‘urban giants’ is a very select band known as the ‘world cities’.
They include London, New York and Tokyo and, because of their status and influence, they are power points of the global economy.
10
Q
What makes mega-cities important?
A
They are the places where vital decisions about the global economy are made.
11
Q
What are 5 strands of urbanisation?
A
Economy, population, settlements, lifestyle and environment.
12
Q
What are the 5 abbreviation for the stages of the urbanisation pathway?
A
LDCs, LEDCs, RICs, NICs, MEDCs
13
Q
On the urbanisation pathway explain LDCs
A
The rural society phase; low levels of urbanisation; largely rural population of subsistence farmers.
14
Q
On the urbanisation pathway explain LEDCs
A
Economic take off begins; rapid rural-to-urban migration leads to an accelerating rate of ubanisation.
15
Q
On the urbanisation pathway explain RICs
A
Maturing economy; rates of urbanisation continue to rise but then start to slacken off; suburban spread.
16
Q
On the urbanisation pathway explain NICs
A
Mass Urbanisation in most developed nations; rate of urbanisation levels off and percentage urban peaks; most people now live in towns.
17
Q
On the urbanisation pathway explain MEDCs
A
In advanced economies, decentalisation sets in; people move to smaller tows and cities and to semi-rural areas; urbanism continues to spread.
18
Q
Give some examples of countries at stage one of the urbanisation pathway.
A
Ethiopia, Bangladesh, Cambodia
19
Q
Give some examples of countries at stage two of the urbanisation pathway.
A
China Iraq Brazil
20
Q
Give some examples of countries at stage three of the urbaniation pathway.
A
Mexico, Russian Federation, malaysia
21
Q
Give some examples of countries at stage four of the urbanisation pathway.
A
USA, South Korea, Singapore
22
Q
Give some examples of countries at stage five of the urbaniation pathway.
A
UK, Austrailia, Japan
23
Q
Most national censuses distinguish between urban and rural settlements on the basis of what?
A
population size
24
Q
Name some urban characteristics of people.
A
Easy transport, social, work close by, high population densities, distinctive lifestyles value and behaviour, diversity in terms of wealth.
25
Name some urban characteristics of economy.
Mainly tertiary and quaternary.
| The provision of commercial and social services for local residents and those living in tertiary areas.
26
Name some urban characteristics of the environment.
Exclusion of the natural world.
Dominance of building and transport networks.
High levels of environmental pollution, not just water and air but also sound, light and visual pollution.
congestion particularly due to traffic, due to high building densities.
27
Name some of the 10 largest cities in the world.
```
Tokyo, Japan – 36.2 million
New York City, USA – 26.7 million
Mexico City, Mexico – 19.1 million
Karachi – 18.6 million
Mumbai, India – 18.1 million
Delhi, India – 18.05 million
Sáo Paulo, Brazil – 17.9 million
Shanghai, China – 17.6 million
Los Angeles – 17.5 million
Beijing – 17.2 million
```
28
What is urbanisation?
Urbanisation is the process by which places and people become more urban.
29
What is the most obvious outcome of urbanisation?
Its most obvious outcome is a rise in the percentage of the population living in towns and cities.
30
What is the most widely used measure of the ‘urban-ness’ of a country or region?
The figure usually referred to as urban percentage.
31
What is the urbanisation pentagon?
-> shift in economy -> Change in population and distribution -> spread of built-up area - urban sprawl -> shift in size and character -> change in way of life ->
32
In the urbanisation pentagon explain a shift in the economy of a country or region.
The emphasis moves from the primary sector to manufacturing and the provision of a wide range of services.
33
In the urbanisation pentagon explain a change in the distribution of population.
People become more concentrated in growing towns and cities. Rural-urban migration is a major contributor.
34
In the urbanisation pentagon explain a change in the way life.
It is not just a change in occupation but there is a change in lifestyles, values, codes of behaviour and social institutions.
35
In the urbanisation pentagon explain a change in the size and character of settlements.
Differential growth sees some villages grow into towns, some towns into cities and so on.
36
In the urbanisation pentagon explain the spread of the built-up area.
The natural environment is progressively lost beneath an artificial environment.
37
What is percentage urban?
the proportion of a population living in urban areas.
38
What is Rural-urban migration?
the movement of people from the countryside into towns and cities.
39
Give some information on the close connection between urbanisation and development.
Development generate urbanisation. As countries become more developed they become more urbanised. They move along an urbanisation pathway.
40
What is the first phase of the urbanisation pathway?
The rural society phase.
41
What is the second phase of the urbanisation pathway?
Economic take-off begins.
42
What is the third phase of the urbanisation pathway?
Maturing economy.
43
What is the fourth phase of the urbanisation pathway?
. Mass urbanisation in most developed nations.
44
What is the fifth phase of the urbanisation pathway?
In advanced economies, decentralisation sets in.
45
Explain stage 1 of the urbanisation pathway.
Low levels of urbanisation; largely rural population of subsistence farmers.
46
Explain stage 2 of the urbanisation pathway.
Rapid rural-to-urban migration leads to an accelerating rate of urbanisation.
47
Explain stage 3 of the urbanisation pathway.
Rate of urbanisation levels off and percentage urban peaks; most people now live in towns.
48
Explain stage 4 of the urbanisation pathway.
Rates of urbanisation continue to rise but then start to slacken off; suburban spread.
49
Explain stage 5 of the urbanisation pathway.
People move to smaller towns and cities and to semi-rural areas; urbanism continues to spread.
50
Presently, there is uncertainty about the urbanisation pathway in the future, what is one suggestion?
Some suggest that the percentage urban figure will begin to decline slightly due to counter-urbanisation.
This term is particularly unfortunate for it gives the wrong impression that the new change is somehow ‘anti-urban’.
People are not abandoning towns and cities in their droves.
51
What urbanisation changes are taking place to businesses?
The first is that some businesses and people are opting to move out of the largest cities and into smaller cities and towns.
52
Explain the effect of counter urbanisation.
a relatively small number of urban businesses and people are moving out into what are seen as rural areas.
Many of these urban-rural migrants retain urban-based jobs by commuting, whilst others remain customers of urban-based services. The result is rural dilution, not ruralisation.
53
What might businesses moving out of cities cause?
This might be seen as ‘anti-big city’. It is not reducing the level of urbanisation. It is simply diffusing urban growth down the hierarchy.
54
Mumbai has grown vastly since the 1950’s showing many positive and negative impacts. Mumbai is now a world city and a mega-city.
What are the causes of urbanisation in Mumbai?
Due to industrialisation people think that there will be more jobs in cites and come in search of work. People also come due to social factors, looking for a higher standard of living and to gain education.
55
Mumbai; So many new workers heading to major cities cause sprawling slums to spring up give an example of a slum and explain.
An example is Dharavi slum built on a rubbish site around a water pipe. People live in very small dwellings (e.g. 12X12ft), Children play amongst sewage waste and doctors deal with 4,000 cases a day of diphtheria and typhoid.[3] It is home to over 600 000 people.
56
In Dharavi how many people live per toilet?
1440
57
What factors helped Mumbai industrialise?
Mumbai has urbanised rapidly from its origins as a fishing village over the past 60 years. It was protected from the Arabian Sea by a peninsular and it had access to sea on two sides. The British colonial administration in India developed the sheltered inlet into a major port. This made it the closest port of entry to subcontinent for travellers from Europe, through the Suez Canal.
58
Science 1971 how much has the population of Mumbai increased?
Since 1971, there has been a rise in the population of Mumbai, from 8 million in 1971 to 21 million now.
59
What is a function?
The function of an area is its reason, job or purpose for being. In urban areas this relates to the purpose of a land use.
60
What are functional zones?
‘functional zones’ refers to different activities, which tend to take place in different parts of a city. These functional zones include the following:
61
What is the Central Business District?
is usually found in the city centre and contains major shops, government buildings and headquarters of financial services.
62
What is a Zone of transition?
this is an area which is undergoing change. Many of the buildings have been allowed to decay and the area has a ‘run-down’ look to it. Often referred to as ‘the inner city’ and usually considered a problem area. Many of these areas have recently become part of urban-renewable schemes with new offices and housing being put in place together with the refurbishment of some older buildings.
63
What are some social issues associated with growth?
Any from;
High rates of immigration and population growth, housing shortages, more social mobility, widening gap between rich and poor - multiple deprivation, overstretched social services, faster pace of living - more stress, increased social malaise, terrorism, vandalism, crime.
64
What are some environmental issues associated with growth?
Any from;
Hazards, natural and man made.
Erosion of rural space.
More pressure on rural areas immediately beyond the urban fringe.
delectation and regeneration.
Rising densities within an expanding built up area.
Traffic congestion and noise dust and visual pollutions.
65
What are some economic issues associated with growth?
Any from:
Wider range of job opportunities, Low unemployment, inflation of housing prices, Growing demand for commercial and social services, rising cost of living and increased consumption of resources.
66
Issues associated with decay, what 5 steps might declining job opportunities and rising unemployment cause?
Decline in services -> Physical fabric and infrastructure deterioration -> more enterprising, economically active people move away -> increasing decay -> loss of investment confidence
67
What cycle might poverty (low wages, unemployment) cause?
-> Poor accommodation (slums overcrowding) -> strain, ill health - physiological stress -> poor educational facilities -> lack of occupational skills ->
68
How much does Mumbai contribute to India's economy?
6.16%
69
How does Mumbai contribute to factory employment and foreign trade?
10% of factory employment.
| 40% of foreign trade
70
What contributes to the distinctiveness of urban areas?
It is the functions or economic activities.
71
What are recurring pattens produced by?
The spatial sorting of both uses and people.
72
What are urban pattens the outcome of?
Distinct processes.
73
What would people saying the most fundamental of all urban characteristics are those to do with the urban economy and its functions argue?
That the activities located in urban areas are the root source of all the other characteristics.
74
What function of cities often goes unrecognised?
Residence is a major land use of all urban areas, in many cases accounting for well over half a built up area. Manufacturing used to be the core function of most MEDC cities.
75
What has changed the fact that Manufacturing used to be the core function of most MEDC cities.
De-industrialisation and the global shift in manufacturing to NICs and RICs.
76
Functions; what are the most lucrative economic activities?
Those that fall within the tertiary and quaternary sectors.
77
What within the quaternary function brings great prosperity to an urban area?
The handling of information, research and development, administration and financial management.
78
Are all functions economic?
It is important to remember that not all functions are strictly economic, recreation is an example, swimming pools earn money however parks do not always.
79
Explain pattens.
One feature of all urban areas is the spatial sorting of functions and people. Similar activities and similar types of people tend to cluster together to create a sort of mosaic within the built up area.
80
Give some examples of similar activities clustering together.
The central business district, industrial estate, edge city and retail park are evidence of this sorting of land uses.
Similarly the ghetto, areas of fashionable housing, the sink estate gated community attest to the sorting of people.
81
Although the urban mosaic varies from settlement to settlement it is possible to make a few generalisations about the spatial patten of urban areas. What generalisation can you make about The general age of a urban area?
The general age of an Urban area decreases from the centre, because towns and cities grow outwards from the historical nucleus.
82
Although the urban mosaic varies from settlement to settlement it is possible to make a few generalisations about the spatial patten of urban areas. What generalisation can you make about the density of development?
The overall density of development tends to decrease, because as a town or city grows its fringe expands. This allows access to still more rural space for the further spread of the built up area. More space for expansion more often leads to lower densities for development.
83
Wherever you are in the world, the urban area will show the same broad spatial components, what are these components?
A core, a suburban ring and a rural fringe.
84
Wherever you are in the world, the urban area will show the same broad spatial components, transition from the core to the suburban ring often shows up as a fairly distinctive zone. What is this referred to as?
The inner ring.
85
Name a major economic factor guiding the sorting of different land uses.
The urban land value surface, The spatial variations in land values or rents within the built up area created by the bidding process.
86
Name a major physical factor guiding the sorting of different land uses.
steep slopes, floodplains, rivers and waterfronts.
87
What professionals have become a significant part in the sorting of different land uses?
Urban managers, professionals who distribute and control resources in an urban area.
88
Urbanisation process fall into a time sequence, explain what this starts with.
Agglomeration as people are drawn to newly emerging towns and cities and as new businesses are set up.
89
Urbanisation process fall into a time sequence, explain what comes after agglomeration.
But agglomeration soon leads to suburbanisation as people move out of the congested core and into areas of lower density.
90
Urbanisation process fall into a time sequence, explain what contributes to the process after suburbanisation?
The continuing accumulation of rural-urban migrants and new businesses moving out to the suburban ring. Regeneration, and the re-imaging that frequently goes with it, might both be seen as forms of re urbanisation
91
Urbanisation process fall into a time sequence, explain suburban intensification.
Suburban intensification involves raising housing densities and building on open spaces. Non-residential activities, such as retailing, offices and service industry become more evident.
92
Name some internal processes within the suburban ring.
Filtering, Gentrification, Exclusion, Re-imaging, regeneration
93
What social factors affect the suburban ring?
Wealth gap, ethnicity, Civic pride
94
What urban managers affect the suburban ring?
Planners, governments, gatekeepers, employers, developers, service providers
95
What economic factors affect the suburban ring?
Land values, functions, competition, enterprise, investment, globalisation, post-industrialism.
96
What centralisation factors affect the suburban ring?
Agglomeration, Re-urbanisation, Suburban intensification.
97
What physical factors affect the suburban ring?
Geology, relief and slope, drainage patten, hydrology, climate
98
What historical factors affect the suburban ring?
Inertia and tradition, Heritage.
99
What decentralisation processes affect the suburban ring?
Suburbanisation, counter urbanisation
100
What is the first process of urbanisation occurring in the urban core.
Agglomeration; growth triggered by non agricultural functions. immigration of people for better paid jobs. This is centralising (centripetal)
101
What is the 2nd process of urbanisation occurring in the urban core.
Regeneration; Often kick-started by planners worried by the demise of inner city areas. This is centralising (centripetal)
102
How is regeneration achieved?
Renewing housing, improving services, generating employment opportunities, finding new uses for old buildings and creating a more attractive and much safer built environment.
103
What is the first process of urbanisation occurring in the suburbs?
Suburbanisation; increasing transport allows for the movement of workers to greenfield sites in the suburbs. Factories, shops and services follow.This is centralising (centripetal)
104
What is the second process of urbanisation occurring in the suburbs?
Suburban intensification; rising densities are brought about by sky-high land prices, physical and legal constraints on the addition of more suburbs, and policies favouring brownfield sites. Land plots of all types such as car parks are replaced residential flats and similar, non residential land use also increases with the construction of business and retail parks, colleges and hospitals. This is both centralising (centripetal) and Decentralising (centrifugal)
105
What process of urbanisation occurs in the rural fringe with networks of towns and villages.
Counter-urbanisation - People move out of big cities and commute to work, others move both home and town. Teleworking can allow this. This is decentralising (centrifugal).
106
What helps to maintain the compactness of an urban area?
Agglomeration, regeneration and suburban intensification and centralising in character.
107
What makes an urban area spread outwards?
Suburbanisation, like counter urbanisation, is largely decentralising. Its most obvious impact is to cause the urban area to spread outwards.
108
What are the third group of processes?
Internal processes; they too can generate a change and impact on the urban patten.
109
What is filtering to do with and what does it involve?
Filtering is to do with housing and social class. It involves housing passing down to lower income inhabitants.
110
What is gentrification to do with and what does it involve?
Gentrification is to do with housing and social class. It works in the opposite direction to filtering with residential areas being improved and upgraded
111
Give two examples of exclusion.
The ghetto and the gated community.
112
What is economic globalisation recently caused?
Economic globalisation and its associated global shift have recently caused many MEDC cities to loose their manufacturing base (de-industrialisation) as factories have moved to more profitable locations in other parts of the world.
113
What is a consequence to globalisation causing factories to move to other parts of the world?
Many LEDC cities, particularly in China and India are booming whereas cities such as Manchester, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Sheffield, once re-owned as industrial centres, have had to find new functions in order to stave off the onset of decay in the post industrial period.
114
Give an example of the rise and fall of Urban areas to do with trade.
Physical processes such as the silting of rivers, have threatened the livelihood of many ports. This has been especially true for those located at the head rather than the mouth of an estuary. In these instances it has been necessary to find new functions to compensate for the inescapable loss of the port function.
115
Give a natural cause halting urban growth.
The devastation caused by natural hazards, such as hurricanes and earthquakes, can certainly urban growth> in most cases, the setback and its decay are temporary.
116
What is physical decay and how can it be stopped?
Urban areas and their buildings age. Over time, buildings need more and more money to keep them up to standard. There often comes a point when old buildings can no longer accommodate modem uses. Physical decay is inherent in the older parts of all urban areas. The main way of stopping it is by urban regeneration.
117
Name some reasons for urban growth.
Access to resources, Opening up of new markets, Local enterprise, TNC interest, Inward investment, Government support, High rates of natural increase, Favourable image and popular perception, Net-in-migration.
118
Name some reasons for urban decline.
Natural disaster, Change in physical geography, Exhaustion of local resources, De-industrialisation, Loss of investment confidence, Political/civil unrest, poor image and popular perception, net out-migration, fall in natural increase rate.
119
Talk about why there are issues associated with urban growth.
Issues or problems arise mainly because those whose job it is to manage urban areas fail to appreciate the scale and speed of growth. the actions tend to be reactive rather than proactive. As a result the provision of such basic things as water and sewage treatment , transport, housing and social services tend to lag behind the rising level of demand. The rising gap between demand and supply that many issues associated with urban growth are born.
120
When was the brown agenda launched and what has it done?
The brown agenda was launched by the UN in 1992 at the same time as the earth summit was being held in Rio De Janeiro. It has done much to focus global attention on the built environment. It has drawn attention to the consequences of development in general and of urban growth in particular.
121
What are the major issues raised in the brown agenda?
The lack of safe water supply, sanitation and drainage (sewage disposal).
The inadequate management of solid and hazardous waste.
The incidence of accidents - traffic, industrial and environmental.
The uncontrolled emissions into the atmosphere.
The occupation of unsafe land by shanty towns (informal settlements)
122
Key concerns expressed at the summit;
| In what country are roads likely to be a major problem, and what can they do about it?
India, 'Our roads are a major problem. We need to do much more to ensure the general safety and well-being of our citizens.'
123
Key concerns expressed at the summit;
| In what country are shanty towns a problem, and what can they do about it?
'Whether we like it or not, shanty town development happens. Better to 'site and service' than demolish and create even more homeless poor.' Brazil
124
Key concerns expressed at the summit;
| In what country is recycling likely to be a major problem, and what can they do about it?
Finland, 'recycling should be a top priority. We can't go on buring our mountains of rubbish'
125
What is the Earth summit?
Image result for earth summitwww.eoearth.org
The Earth Summit was a UN event. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Rio Summit, Rio Conference, and Earth Summit (Portuguese: ECO92), was a major United Nations conference held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992.
126
Key concerns expressed at the summit;
| In what country are derlict buildings likely to be a major problem, and what can they do about it?
Wales 'Nothing spoils our image more than derelict land and buildings. Finding new uses and funding are the real challenges'
127
Key concerns expressed at the summit;
| In what country is water likely to be a major problem, and what can they do about it?
'We need to be sure that there is safe piped water for everyone' - Zambia
128
Key concerns expressed at the summit;
| In what country is air pollution likely to be a major problem, and what can they do about it?
Chile- 'Too much air pollution - too many smogs. No wonder our citizens have breathing difficulties.
129
Key concerns expressed at the summit;
| In what country is the private car likely to be a major problem, and what can they do about it?
' the private car is our worst enemy. Congestion is a waste of time, money and fossil fuel. Getting people to leave their cars at home is not easy' England
130
Key concerns expressed at the summit;
| In what country is the eciological footprint likely to be a major problem, and what can they do about it?
'our ecological footprint is too deep. We need to be much more energy efficient.' - Malaysia
131
Key concerns expressed at the summit;
| In what country green spaces likely to be a focus, and what can they do about it?
Australia - 'we take pride in our green spaces. Residents enjoy them and they do a bit to combat global warming.'
132
What is water needed for?
Domestic consumption.
Manufacturing use
Cooling purposes in elelctric power stations
Sewage treatment and waste disposal
133
What is the demand for water?
Worldwide, the demand for water continues to rise. Demand in England and wales has risen to 40 billion litres per day.
134
What is the key thing about water?
Not just ensuring there is enough but also ensuring the safter or purityof the supply.
135
Why are urban water supplies readily contaminated?
By the discharge of urban sewage and industrial wastes into rivers and lakes and by the pollution carried in urban run-off.
136
What can lead to lethal chemicals seeping into water supplies?
Agricultral practices, such as applying manure and artificial fertilisers, can lead to lethal chemicals seeping into reservoirs and the groundwater stores.
137
What is a problem with the solution to providing a continuous supply of water?
The problem of collecting and storing water.
138
What type of countries particulay produce large quantities os solid waste?
Urban areas produce large quantities of solid waste, particularly those in MEDCs with their high levels of consumption and their throw-away societies.
139
What is an obvious way of reducing waste and its limitations?
Recycling waste materials is an obvious way forward, but at the moment, for cost and technological reasons, recycling is mainly limited to paper, glass and plastics.
140
Give a way of reducing biodegradable waste.
Much can be done by composting biodegradable waste.
141
Are all local authorities in the Uk processing their waste?
Nope
142
What challenge remains with dealing with non recyclable waste?
The challenge remains as what to do with un-recyclable waste, particularly toxic waste. Should it be burned? Should it be buried or dumped at sea? All options raise obvious environmental issues.
143
What three specific issues are raised by the efficiency of the movement of goods in an urban area?
Traffic congestion, oil consumption and public versus private transport.
144
What is traffic congestion an outcome of?
Outdated and inadequate road systems, the great rise in private car ownership and the concentration of services and jobs in the core areas of towns and cities that encourages an acute convergence of traffic.
145
Traffic congestion is not just a waste of time and fuel, what are some other costs?
There are costs in terms of pollution, noise and stress.
146
How can levels of congestion be reduced, by working on the roads network?
Segregation - rerouting heavy traffic, establishing ring routes for through traffic, pedestrianisation.
147
How can levels of congestion be reduced, using charges?
Parking - pitching prices at a right level, rationing parking permits, limiting the amount of parking space.
Vehicle control - traffic light systems, congestion charging, restricting vehicle use to alternative days.
148
How can levels of congestion be reduced, using alternative transport?
Public transport - making it an attractive alternative to the car.
149
How can levels of congestion be reduced, with information?
Traffic information systems - advising travellers about routes, hold ups, black spots and alternative modes of transport.
150
Where might traffic management schemes be and not be useful?
These sort of interventions may prove effective in MEDC cities but hey are unlikely to work in many LEDC cities.
151
Where does traffic congestion come from in LEDC cities?
Much of the congestion is caused by the great volumes of paratransit traffic. Minibuses, hand drawn and motorised rickshaws, scooters and pedicabs (pedal tricycles used as taxis) carry both goods and passengers along narrow crowded streets.
152
Talk about the widespread use of the paratransit in LEDC cities.
Paratransit is one of the main activities of the informal economy that prospers in all LEDC urban areas.
153
Where does most energy used by various modes of transport come from.
Much of the energy used by various modes of transport comes from the burning of oil bases products.
154
What are two major worries about using oil to power transport? Give an example of an alternative.
That oil stocks are rapidly running out and burning oil products is a major source of air pollution.
The use of biofuels is just beginning.
155
One way of reducing traffic congestion and consumption of oil is to provide cheap efficient public transport, but breaking the downward spiral of public transport will require what?
Getting really tough on the use of the motor car. People must be persuaded to leave their cars at home as much as possible.
156
What is the downward spiral of public transport?
a
