Unit 2

Question 1

Critical thinking

Answer 1

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, asses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and asses conclusions.

Question 2

Hindsight bias

Answer 2

The tendency to believe, after hearing an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Also known as the “I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.”

Question 3

Theory

Answer 3

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Question 4

Hypothesis

Answer 4

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Question 5

Operational definition

Answer 5

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Question 6

Replication

Answer 6

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances.

Question 7

Case study

Answer 7

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Question 8

Naturalistic observation

Answer 8

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Question 9

Survey

Answer 9

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Question 10

Sampling bias

Answer 10

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Question 11

Population

Answer 11

All those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)

Question 12

Random sample

Answer 12

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Question 13

Correlation

Answer 13

A measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how will either variable predicts the other.

Question 14

Correlation coefficient

Answer 14

A statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.0 to +1.0)

Question 15

Scatterplot

Answer 15

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Question 16

Illusory correlation

Answer 16

The perception of a relationship where none exists.

Question 17

Experiment

Answer 17

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variables.

Question 18

Experimental group

Answer 18

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Question 19

Control group

Answer 19

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Question 20

Random assignment

Answer 20

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

Question 21

Double-blind procedure

Answer 21

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Question 22

Placebo effect

Answer 22

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Question 23

Independent variable

Answer 23

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Question 24

Confounding variable

Answer 24

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.

Question 25

Dependent variable

Answer 25

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Question 26

Validity

Answer 26

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Question 27

Descriptive statistics

Answer 27

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Question 28

Histogram

Answer 28

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

Question 29

Mode

Answer 29

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Question 30

Mean

Answer 30

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Question 31

Median

Answer 31

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it.

Question 32

Skewed distribution

Answer 32

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

Question 33

Range

Answer 33

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Question 34

Standard deviation

Answer 34

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Question 35

Normal curve (normal distribution)

Answer 35

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

Question 36

Inferential statistics

Answer 36

Numerical data that allow one to generalize-to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Question 37

Culture

Answer 37

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Question 38

Informed consent

Answer 38

An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Question 39

Debriefing

Answer 39

The postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.