Respiration Flashcards
What are the four processes of respiration?
- Pulmonary ventilation –> movement of air in and out of lungs
- External respiration –> O2 and CO2 exchange between lungs and blood
- Transport –> O2 and CO2 in blood
- Internal respiration –> O2 ad CO2 between systemic blood vessels and tissues
What are the major organs of the upper respiratory tract? (3)
- Nose and nasal cavity
- Paranasal sinuses
- Pharynx
What are the major organs of the lower respiratory tract? (4)
- Larynx
- Trachea
- Bronchi and branches
- Lungs and alveoli
What is the dividing point between the upper and lower respiratory tract?
The interface between the larynx and pharynx
What are the two regions of the nose and what are they formed by?
- External nose
- formed by bones: maxillary, frontal, and nasal
- Formed by hyaline cartilages: septal, minor and major alar
- Nasal cavity
- formed by bones: ethmoid, vomer, maxilla and palatine
- formed by cartilage: septal cartilage (divides midline)
What is the function of the nose?
- produces mucus
- filters, warms, and moistens incoming air
- resonance chamber for speech
- receptors for sense of smell
What is the Nasal vestibule and what is it’s purpose?
Nasal cavity superior to the nostrils → lined with vibrissae to filter coarse particles from inspired air
What is the function of paranasal sinuses?
Lighten the skull; may also warm, moisten and filter incoming air
What is the function of the pharynx?
Passageway for food and air, also facilitates exposure of immune system to inhaled antigens
What is the function of the larynx?
- air passageway
- prevents food from entering the lower respiratory tract
- voice production
What is the function of the trachea?
Air passageway that cleans, warms and moistens incoming air
What is the bronchial tree and what is it’s function?
Bronchial tree = left and right main bronchi that subdivide into lobar and segmental bronchi and bronchioles
Function: air passageways connecting trachea with alveoli; cleans, warms and moistens incoming air
What is the function of the alveoli?
Main sites of gas exchange
What type of epithelium makes up the walls of the alveoli?
Simple squamous epithelium
What are the two pleurae associated with lungs, what do they cover and what is their purpose?
Parietal pleura lines the thoracic cavity
Visceral pleura covers external lung surfaces
Function: produce lubricating fluid and compartmentalize lungs
Which structure of the lungs has direct contact with blood?
Alveoli
What are the alae?
structure that binds the nostrils laterally to the face
What is the dorsum nasi?
Anterior margin of the nose
What bones form the external nose?
- Nasal bone (forms bridge)
- Frontal bone (forms root)
- Maxillary bone (laterally)
What is the type of cartilage in the nose and the names of cartilages that make up the nose?
HYALINE CARTILAGE
- Septal cartilage
- Lateral processes of septal cartilage
- Minor alar cartilages (laterally)
- Major alar cartilages (apex)
What forms the roof of the nasal cavity?
ethmoid and sphenoid bones
What forms the floor of the nasal cavity?
Hard and soft palate (bone and muscle respectively)
What is the name of the opening where the nasal cavity turns into the nasopharynx?
Posterior nasal apertures (choanae)
What is the difference between the nasal conchae and the nasal meatus?
Conchae → scroll-like mucosa covered projections that protrude medially from each lateral wall of nasal cavity
Meatus → groove inferior to each concha
What is rhinitis and where does an infection spread?
Rhinitis = inflammation of nasal mucosa
Nasal mucosa is continuous with mucosa of respiratory tract so infections spread from nose → throat → chest
*can also spread to tear ducts and paranasal sinuses causing blockage of sinus pathways
How does a sinus headache happen?
Blockage of sinus pathways can lead to absorption of air, producing a vacuum
What is the anatomical position of the pharynx and what does it connect?
Runs from base of skull to vertebra C6
Connects nasal cavity and mouth to larynx and esophagus
Which tonsils are found in the nasopharynx?
Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)
Pharyngotympanic tubes (auditory tubes)
What type of epithelium lines the nasopharynx?
pseudo-stratified columnar epithelium
What structures close the nasopharynx during swallowing?
Soft palate and uvula
What tonsils are located in the orsopharynx?
Palatine tonsils (in lateral walls of fauces)
Lingual tonsil (posterior surface of tongue)
What type of epithelium lines the laryngopharynx?
Stratified squamous (non-keratinized)
What is Waldeyer’s ring?
Shows the position of the tonsils and whether or not they are off midline
What happens when adenoids are infected and swollen?
Blocks air passage in nasopharynx making it necessary to breathe through the mouth
When they are chronically enlarged, sleep and speech may be disturbed
What are the two zones of the lower respiratory system and what is their function?
1 - Conducting zone: conduits that transport gas to and from gas exchange sites (cleanses, warms and humidifies air)
2 - Respiratory zone: site of gas exchange (made of microscopic structures)
What is the anatomical position of the larynx?
3rd to 6th cervical vertebra
What are the three functions of the larynx?
- Provides patent airway
- routes air and food into proper channels (trachea vs esophagus)
- Voice production
What are the 9 cartilages in the larynx?
1 - Thyroid cartilage (contains laryngeal prominence)
2 - Cricoid cartilage (ring shaped)
3 & 4 - Arytenoid cartilage (paired)
5 & 6 - Cuneiform cartilage (paired)
7 & 8 - Corniculate cartilages (paired)
9 - Epiglottis
What type of cartilage is the epiglottis made from?
Elastic (recall that the E structures are elastic)
What are the two vocal ligaments and what are their functions?
- Vocal folds: vibrate to produce sound as air rushes from lungs
- Vestibular folds: help to close the glottis during swallowing (no part in sound production)
What is the glottis?
opening between vocal folds
What cartilages are attached by the vocal ligaments?
Arytenoid cartilages attached to thyroid cartilage
Why do vocal ligaments appear white?
there are no blood vessels
What determines loudness and pitch of speech?
Loudness → force of air from lungs
Pitch → length and tension of vocal cords
What structures “shape” sound into language?
muscles of:
- pharynx
- tongue
- soft palate
- lips
What is laryngitis and what is it caused by?
Laryngitis = inflammation of vocal folds causing them to swell, interfering with vibrations (changes to vocal tone causing hoarseness)
Often caused by viral infections, overuse, dry air, bacterial infections, tumours on folds or irritating chemicals
What are the three layers of the wall of the trachea and what are they made of?
- Mucosa: ciliated pseudo-stratified epithelium (contains goblet cells)
- Submucosa: connective tissue supported by C-shaped cartilage rings (contains seromucous glands)
- Adventitia: connective tissue (outermost layer)
What is the trachealis?
Smooth muscle fibers that connect posterior parts of cartilage rings and contract during coughing to get rid of mucus
What is the Carina?
Last tracheal cartilage which is found at the point where the trachea branches into the two main bronchi
What is special about the Carina’s mucosa?
It is highly sensitive and violent coughing will be triggered if any foreign object makes contact with it
How many orders of branching do air passages undergo?
23
What is the difference in the right and left primary bronchi?
The right primary bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left so there is a higher chance of things going in there by accident
What do the primary bronchi branch into and is there a difference between the right and left?
Primary bronchi branch into lobar/secondary bronchi; 3 on the right and 2 on the left
What do the lobar bronchi branch into?
Segmental/tertiary bronchi
What classifies a branch as a bronchiole?
When they are less than 1mm in diameter, they do not contain cartilage
What is the size of a terminal bronchiole?
less than 0.5mm
What are the 3 major changes that occur in the conducting zone?
- Support structures change: cartilage rings become irregular plates and elastic fibers replace cartilage in the bronchioles
- Epithelium type changes: pseudo-stratified columnar becomes cuboidal, cilia and goblet cells become more sparse
- Smooth muscle increases: allows bronchioles to provide substantial resistance to air passage
Where does the respiratoy zone begin?
Terminal bronchioles → respiratory bronchioles → alveolar ducts → alveolar sacs (clusters of alveoli)
What is the respiratory membrane?
Blood-air barrier made of alveolar and capillary walls along with their fused basement membranes (super thin ~0.5um which allows for gas exchange)
What makes up the alveolar walls?
Simple squamous epithelium and cuboidal type II alveolar cells which secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins → surfactant reduces surface tension
What are the 3 significant features of alveoli?
- Surrounded by fine elastic fibers and pulmonary capillaries
- Alveolar pores equalize air pressure throughout lung and provide alternate route in case of blockage
- Alveolar macrophages keep alveolar surfaces sterile (carried to throat and swallowed)
What divides into bronchopulmonary segments and how many are there on the left and right lungs?
The lobes of the lung (recall 3 on right and 2 on left) divide into bronchopulmonary segments (10 on right and 8-10 on left)
What separates the bronchopulmonary segments?
Connective tissue septa
What is a lobule and what does it look like?
Smallest subdivision of the lungs that is visible to the naked eye; looks like hexagonal segments served by bronchioles and their branches
What makes the lungs elastic and spongy?
Stroma, elastic connective tissue
How many segments are in each lobe of the lungs?
Right superior lobe - 3
Right middle lobe - 2
Right inferior lobe - 5
Left superior lobe - 4
Left inferior lobe - 5