Imperial Attitudes 1890-1914 (2) Flashcards
Who were key imperialist supporters?
• Empire was widely accepted among the ruling elites
• It was widely supported at all levels of society which could be seen in the Conservatives impressive win in the khaki election of 1900
• It was often seen as a moral responsibility, or even a burden from God to bring stability, order, civilisation, welfare, the rule of law and freedom from local oppression to the world
• The liberals aimed at the education and improvement of the colonies – with the ultimate purpose of self-rule
• Both the liberals and the new labour party supported freedom through empire rather than freedom from empire
• Most of the enthusiastic imperialists were conservatives, arguing in favour of a stronger, more united empire to create an economic superpower
• Lord Salisbury (conservative PM 1885-86. 1886-92, 1895-1902, foreign secretary 1878, 1885-6, 1886-92, 1895-1900) was a moderate imperialism who believed European rule was important for the advancement of the ‘backward races’. He imposed rule by force e.g. Sudan 1896-99. He opposed alliance commitments which he believed unnecessary and dangerous for Britain. His foreign policy was dictated by the defence and enlargement of the Empire
• Curzon thought that the Empire was ‘so great an instrument for the good of humanity’
• Milner believed a British man should feel equally at home anywhere in the Empire
• ‘High Imperialists’ wanted a strong empire ruled by the white people. Non-white people were subjects and not citizens
• Joseph Chamberlain believed only the Empire could solve the national crisis of the industrial and military advances of other powers. He believed a reorganised empire would enable industrial recovery, provide employment, generate wealth to fund social reforms and strengthen the British people’s moral fiber. He believed educating the public about the value of empire would win loyalty from the working class. He tried to create a strong union between Britain and the colonies of settlement for the purposes of defence and trade but his ideas failed to win widespread support
• Most imperialists argued for the economic benefits of Empire
• Some sought ‘colonial development’ beyond the white colonies and India and favoured the policy of imperial preference
• Lord Meath, a diplomat, spoke in more social terms and argued that state-organised emigration and colonisation were essential to check the expansion of British cities and simultaneously strengthen the Empire
• Many Imperial activists were members of societies like the Royal Colonial Institute, founded in 1870 to
provide a meeting place for those interested in colonial and Indian affairs
• The Victoria League, founded in 1901, was a non-political organisation founded by women to promote a closer
union between different parts of the Empire through ‘hospitality, fundraising, friendship, and education’
• The Round Table movement was founded in 1909 on an idea of Lord Milner, to promote a closer union
between Britain and its self-governing colonies. Round Table groups were formed in South Africa, Australia,
New Zealand and Canada in 1910 and 1911
• Such societies proliferated in the early 20th century
• The Empire Day movement followed the lead of Lord Meath in 1896. Empire Day was not celebrated until
1902 and was only officially recognised in Parliament in 1916. The idea of a day of festivities was intended to reinforce imperial unity and celebrate the image of a motherly Queen Victoria, Empress of India. The movement was part of the imperialists’ drive to educated the British public about Empire
• Journalists such as Leopold Amery and Lord Beaverbrook (who was to become the Chief proprietor of the Daily Express in 1916) helped to represent the Empire to the British people, emphasising the imperial family and portraying imperial values
Who were key critics of empire?
• One of the strongest critics was John A. Hobson. His views were catalysed by the Boer War. He believed that imperial expansion benefited the rich capitalists who made profit through investment, he believed this small and powerful elite were who shaped imperial policy. He thought empire was a ‘capitalist plot’
• There were concerns about the conduct of the Boer War, rather than a direct challenge to Empire
• Emily Hobhouse – wrote reports which led to a government enquiry into the conditions in the British concentration camps. This helped to tarnish the allure of imperialism and its supposed civilising mission
• Wilfred Scawen Blunt – imitated the pro-imperialist poet Kipling, and penned the line ‘the white man’s burden, lord in the burden of his cash’
• Herbert Spencer – an influential philosopher who criticised the Victorian enthusiasm for colonial acquisition of colonies
• Frederic Harrison – a radical left-wing lawyer and historian who believed imperialism to be unethical
• William Digby – a writer and propagandist who had served in India and set up the Indian political and General Agency in London in order to raise awareness about Indian grievances in the British Parliament and press in 1888
• Walter Crane – an arts and crafts designer, children’s book writer and socialist who used his design skills to produce anti-war illustrations in order to encourage those on the left to embrace anti-imperialism
• The liberals preferred to disassociate themselves from colonial conflict and excessive imperialism of the right- wing conservatives, but the continuation of empire was not questioned
What was the impact of literature and music on imperial attitudes?
• Rudyard Kipling shaped British attitudes before 1914. He had an almost religious belief in Empire and filled his work with reference to Britain’s higher goals e.g. The White Man’s Burden
• Samuel Baker and G.A. Henty’s tales of military campaigns proved bestsellers
• Gertrude Page emigrated to Rhodesia and wrote over 20 novels set there
• Mary Gaunt’s novels focused on committed colonists such as missionaries, civil servants, and scientists
• British India was the most popular setting and Anglo-Indian love stories proliferated from the 1890s – Maud Diver wrote many accounts of British Romance and Heroism there
• Henry Coward took a Sheffield Choir on a musical tour of the Dominions in 1911
• Nationalist and Imperialist themes were also present in music. ‘Imperial’ ballads, patriotic hymns, stirring choral works and military marches were often performed
• Gilbert and Sullivan’s operas often conveyed a patriotic and imperialist message in a humorous way
• The imperial composer Edward Elgar deliberately sought to stimulate ideas which captured the nobility of the Empire in his pieces such as Imperial March, The Crown of India and The Dream of Gerontius (which was about General Gordon)
What were the impacts of youth movements and education on imperial attitudes?
• Robert Baden-Powell, hero of the Boer War, set up the Boy Scouts movement in 1908, followed by the girl guides in 1912. It was the most successful attempt to mobilise young people behind imperial themes
• Imperialist messaged spread through books, organisations, and schools and young people were reminded of their mission and duty
• Increased literacy rates produced new markets for books and comics which had stories of adventures with imperial themes and celebrated military and missionary activities e.g. Brett’s Boys of the Empire (1888-1900), The Boys Own Paper and the Girls Own Paper which had 1⁄4 - 1⁄2 m readers between 1890-1914
• Howard Handley Spicer published Boys of Our Empire magazine, set up the Boys’ empire league (7000 members in 1900) and an annual book focusing on the colonies. Each year an exam was set with the first prize of £25 and the offer of free passage to one of the colonies
• History and geography books emphasised the glories of empire and presented explores and missionaries as heroes
• Simple books also contained imperial themes e.g. Mary Frances Ames’ ABC for Baby Patriots 1899
• Children took part in Empire Day
• Some groups had a Christian dimension e.g. The Non-Conformist Boys’ Life Brigade and The Anglican
Church Ladies’ Brigade which were both established in 1890. The Girls Friendly Society had over 200 000 members by 194 as well as its own emigration secretary, Ellen Joyce, who encouraged the girls to emigrate to improve themselves
How did advertisements impact imperial attitudes?
• Images and motifs helped to spread awareness of the empire
• They frequently used Imperial themes and connotations to sell their goods – suggesting that the British public
felt favourably disposed towards the empire
How did architecture impact imperial attitudes?
• Edwin Lutyens designed both in Britain and in the Empire. He was responsible for the Johannesburg Art Gallery from 1911 and the British Pavilion at the international exhibition in Rome the same year. In 1912, he and Herbert Baker designed new Delhi as a home for the government of India. They made annual visits to India to supervise this work
How did Festivals and exhibitions impact imperial attitudes?
• Queen Victoria’s diamond jubilee 1897 celebrated the military power of Britain
• Empire Day
• Souvenir books and postcards, as well as the media reports all, helped convey the value of Empire to the
general public
• King George V’s coronation was celebrated with a Festival of Empire at the Crystal Palace in 1911. 3⁄4 size
models of the parliament buildings around the Empire were constructed to display exhibitions. There was an inter-empire sports championship which was a forerunner to the British Empire Games (Common-wealth games)
What was popular press?
• The ‘golden age’ of newspaper publication technical advances in printing, the emergence of professional journalism with a political agenda
• It responded to the demands of the mass audience
• The Mail serialised a number of patriotic books e.g. Headon Hill’s The Spies of Wright, Walter Wood’s The
Enemy in Our Midst and Captain Curries’ When England Slept
• Alfred Harmsworth pioneers the production of a new form of cheap, populist newspaper in 1896 with the
Daily Mail which was deliberately aimed at the lower middle classes. During the Boer War, it sold over a million copies a day – filling its pages with the war, damning the Boer and praising the British. Hobson criticised it ‘cruel sensationalism’. Harmsworth established the Daily Mail (1896) and the Daily Mirror (1903). He helped to create tabloid journalism. The Daily Mail held the world record for daily circulation until his death. He rescued the financially desperate Observer and the Times in 1905 and 1908 respectively. He also acquired the Sunday Times in 1908
What was national efficiency?
• This became a real concern just after the end of the Boer War where 30 000 Boers had held out against British forces for almost 3 years
• During the war, it had been difficult to recruit soldiers from within Britain itself because so many men were not really fit for active service
• Living conditions and diet in Britain were not good and men from the Empire tended to be healthier
• The industrial north-west was probably the worst area with only 3000 of the 11000 volunteers from
Manchester being fit enough to be accepted into military service
• Across the country as a whole, 40% of the volunteers had to be turned away
• Industrial production was also declining
• Across the media and political sector, there was concern that the nation needed to be better educated and
healthier. Journalists often referred to Britain as a nation of amateurs
What were the measures taken with national efficiency?
• 1902 Education Act raised standards and the extent of education, leading to an extra 1000 secondary schools opening over the following decade
• Conservative initiated a new phase of battleship development to compete with the Germans. HMS Dreadnaught was launched in 1906, and many more improved vessels were to follow
• Imperial college was opened in London, concentrating on scientific and technological courses
• Social reforms followed including free school meals (1906), school medical inspections (1907), old age
pensions (1908) and National Insurance in (1911)
Who were key figures in national efficiency?
• David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill were the most important people working on the reforms. They were both from the Liberal Government led by Herbert Asquith
What was the home focus with national efficiency?
• The focus on conditions at home and the closer European rivals meant that some public attention and newspaper interest moved away from Empire for a while but this did not mean the people were now opposed to it
