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psychology 1 & 2 > how are behaviour and mental processes shaped? > Flashcards

how are behaviour and mental processes shaped? Flashcards

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1
Q

definition of psychology

A

the scientific study of human mental states and behaviour.

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2
Q

defintion of pseudoscience

A

a collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method.

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3
Q

define the four components that define scientific ideas

A
  • aim to be objective
  • utilise and produce empirical evidence
  • are formed using the methods of science
  • use predictions, models, and theories that are provisional and verifiable to explain reality.
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4
Q

define the five components that define non scientific ideas

A
  • non objective
  • unempirical
  • imprecise or vague
  • dogmatic (not open to questioning)
  • unverifiable
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5
Q

define the four components that non scientific ideas are formulated on and explain them

A
  • anecdote (stories based on personal experience)
  • opinion (the view or perspective of someone not necessarily based on evidence)
  • intuition (something one feels instinctively as opposed to arrives at through considered reasoning)
  • hearsay (rumour or information from which others cannot be supported with evidence)
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6
Q

give the definition of a scientific method

A

a procedure used to obtain knowledge that involves hypothesis formulation, testing, and restesting through processes of experimentation, observation, measurement, and recording. Centered around generating an informed hypothesis and then testing it to generate evidence that either supports or refutes it.

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7
Q

definition of a theory

A

a proposition or set of principles that is used to explain something or make predictions about a cause and effect. To explain and predict informed by scientific research and logic.

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8
Q

definition of a model

A

a representation of a concept, process, or behaviour, often made to simplify or make something easier to understand. To simplify and represent informed by scientific theories and ideas.

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9
Q

definition of aim

A

a statement outlining the purpose of the investigation as a succinct and straightforward sentence.

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10
Q

definition of hypothesis

A

a testable prediction about the outcome of an investigation that is investigated to be supported or rejected by experimental outcomes.

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11
Q

define the three components included in a hypothesis

A
  • variables
  • population
  • direction
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12
Q

definition of variables

A

specific conditions or components of an experiment that can be manipulated or measured by the experiment (independent and dependent variable)

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13
Q

definition of population

A

the group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn. Helps to narrow the scope and improves the quality of research.

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14
Q

definition of direction

A

a predication about the ‘direction’ of the results e.g some outcome was ‘more likely’ or ‘less likely’, or that some condition would increase or decrease.

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15
Q

controlled experiments investigate…

A

the causal relationship between the effect of the independant variable on the dependant variable while aiming to control all other variables.

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16
Q

definition of causal relationship

A

implies a direct cause and effect relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

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17
Q

definition of independant variable

A

variable which is manipulated (controlled, selected, or changed) by the researcher and that is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependant variable.

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18
Q

dependant variable definition

A

variable the researcher measures for changes it may experience in an experiment due to the effect of the independant variable (relies on what form of the independant variable the person was exposed to)

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19
Q

recite the formula for a hypothesis

A

it is predicted that (participants/population) who/ when (independant variable experimental condition), will have/show (direction) (dependant variable) compared to those who/when (independant variable control condition)

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20
Q

operationalization definition

A

to put something into measureable terms (how variables are defined within a study)

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21
Q

operationalised hypothesis definition

A

a hypothesis put into measurable terms

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22
Q

explain the purpose of controlled variables within a study

A

to ensure that changes in the dependant variable are solely due to changes in the independant variable

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23
Q

definition of controlled group

A

not exposed to the independant variable on the basis of comparison

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24
Q

definition of experimental group

A

is exposed to the independant variable

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25
Q

explain the relationship between the experimental group and controlled group

A

are both compared tot test the hypothesis. Both groups should be as similar as possible, except being exposed to the independant variable.

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26
Q

definition of extraneous variable

A

any variable/ factor other than the independant variable that may effect the dependant variable (a possible source of bias/ aim to control extraneous variables within an experiment)

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27
Q

experiment definition

A

research in which researchers manipulates the independent variable to observe its effect on the dependent variable while attempting to control all other variables –> allows investigators to infer cause and effect.

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28
Q

what is the experimental group

A

refers to the group of participants in an experiment who are exposed to a manipulated independent variable

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29
Q

control group definition

A

refers to the group of participants in an experiment who receive no experimental treatment or intervention in order to serve as a baseline for comparison.

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30
Q

define the three types of experiment design

A

within subject design, between subject design and mixed subject design

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31
Q

within subject design definition

A

an experimental design in which participants complete every experimental condition

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32
Q

advantages of within subject design

A
  1. results of the experiment are more likely due to the manipulation of the IV than any differences between participants that would occur if they were in seperate groups.
  2. less people are needed because each participant completes each experimental condition.
  3. good for real world setting and phenomena
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33
Q

disadvantages of within subject designs

A
  1. can produce order effects
  2. a participant dropping out has a greater impact on the study as the experimenter loses two data points instead of one.
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34
Q

between subjects design definition

A

an experimental design in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition

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35
Q

advantages of between subject design

A
  • may be less time consuming as different participants can complete the different conditions simultaneously and do not need to be repeated.
  • does not create order effects
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36
Q

disadvantages of between subjects design

A
  • may require more participants than a within-subjects design
  • differences between participants across groups can affect results
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37
Q

definition of mixed design

A

combines elements of within subjects and between subject designs. Allows experimenters to note the differences that occur within each experimental group overtime, and also compare differences across experimental groups.

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38
Q

advantages of mixed design

A
  • allows experimenters to compare results both across experimental conditions and across individuals/participants/groups overtime.
  • allows multiple experimental conditions to be compared to a baseline control group
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39
Q

disadvantages of mixed design

A
  • can be more costly and time-consuming to plan, and then analyze results
  • demanding for researchers and assistances to be across multiple methods.
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40
Q

case study definition

A

an indepth investigation of an individual, group, or particular phenomenon that contains a real or hypothetical situation. Utilized when information is needed about a specific phenomenon that is rare or hard to study repeatedly with a large group of people

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41
Q

correlational study definition

A

a type of non experimental study in which researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variables without any manipulation of them.
- the variables under investigation are only measured and no manipulated
- correlation refers to the strength of the relationship between variables - how likely they are to occur together

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42
Q

controlled experiment definition

A

an experiment that allow a researcher to strictly manipulate variables of interest in a controlled environment and measure their effect on other variables (DV)
- allows researchers to infer a more causal relationship between variables

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43
Q

population definition

A

refers to the group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn

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44
Q

sample definition

A

the subset of the population who participate in a study - their results can be used to make conclusions about the larger population

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45
Q

generalisable/representative definition

A

refers to the ability for a samples results to be used to make conclusions about the wider research population

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46
Q

what is achieving a representative sampe dependant on?

A

the sample size (the bigger the size the more representative of the general population) and sampling technique

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47
Q

random sampling definition

A

any sampling technique that uses a procedure to ensure every member if the population has the same chance of being selected

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48
Q

convenience sampling definition

A

sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population, rather than using a random or systematic approach

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49
Q

stratified sampling definition

A

involves selecting people from the population in a way that ensures that its strata (sub groups) are proportionately represented in the sample

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50
Q

what does stratified sampling involve

A
  1. dividing the research population into different strata based on characteristics relevant to the study
  2. selecting participants from each stratum in proportion to how they are in the population - can be random or systematic
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51
Q

advantages of convenience sampling

A

the most time effective and can be cost effective

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52
Q

disadvantages of convenience sampling

A

the most likely to produce an unrepresentative sample, thereby making it harder for researchers to generalise results to the population.

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53
Q

advantages of random sampling

A
  • the sample generated can be more representative than convenience sampling.
  • it reduces experimeters bias in selecting participants.
  • it can make a fairly representative sample if the sample is large
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54
Q

disadvantages of random sampling

A
  • it may be time consuming to ensure every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample,
  • it may not create an entirely representative sample when the sample is small.
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55
Q

stratified sampling advantages

A

the most likely to produce a representative sample

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56
Q

disadvantages of stratified sampling

A
  • it can be time-consuming and expensive.
  • it can be demanding on the researcher to select the most appropriate strata to account for.
57
Q

allocation definition

A

the process of randomly (should be) assigning participants to experimental conditions to groups.

58
Q

errors definition

A

refers to changes to the dependant variable caused by something other than the independent variable

59
Q

extraneous variable definition

A

any variable that is not the independant variable but may cause an unwanted effect on the dependant variable - should be controlled

60
Q

confounding variable definition

A

refers to a variable that has directly and systematically affected the DV, apart from the IV. May be an extraneous variable that has not been controlled for. It can not be confirmed whether the IV or confounding variables caused the changes to the DV can only be identified at the end of the study.

61
Q

state the major difference between confounding and extraneous variables

A

extraneous variable: before the experiment/ any variable other than the IV that may cause an unwanted effect on the DV
confounding variable: after/ any variable that has directly or systematically affected the DV

62
Q

list the 7 examples of extraneous or confounding variables

A
  1. Participant related variables
  2. Order effects
  3. Placebo effects
  4. Experimenter effects
  5. situational variables
  6. non-standardised structures and procedures
  7. demand characteristics
63
Q

definition of participant related variables

A

differences in participants in a study, therefore differences in the groups on a key variable

64
Q

ways to control participant related variables

A

choice of experimental design (within subjects, between subjects, mixed design) and sample size (larger sample to fit population)

65
Q

definition of order effects

A

the sequence/ order in which participants receive conditions that may influence the dependant variable

66
Q

identify the three types of order effects

A

practice, fatigue, boredom

67
Q

ways to control order effects

A

counterbalancing

68
Q

definition of counterbalancing

A

the participant sample is divided in half, with one half completing the two conditions in one order and the other half completing the conditions in the reverse order.

69
Q

definition of placebo effect

A

the belief that a participant is getting a treatment that effects the/their DV. The expectation effect that a treatment will work rather than the treatment actually working itself

70
Q

ways to control placebo effect

A

single blind

71
Q

single blind definition

A

when the participant doesnt know whether they are the control group or experimental group

72
Q

definition of experimenter effects

A

the researchers expectations that may influence the DV

73
Q

ways to control experimenter effects

A

double blind

74
Q

double blind definition

A

neither the researcher nor participant knows which group they are in - instead a researchers assistant is used an knows.

75
Q

situational variables definition

A

factors in the environment that may effect the DV

76
Q

ways to control situational variablea

A

standardised instructions and conditions

77
Q

unstandardized structures and procedures definition

A

where participants may be given different instructions which may effect the DV

78
Q

ways to control unstandardised structures and procedures

A

standarised structures and procedures (documentation, script, quanitative data)

79
Q

demand characteristics definition

A

change in participant behaviour due to being in a study and knowing what the study is about

80
Q

ways to control demand characteristics

A

single blind, experimental realism

81
Q

experimental realism definition

A

making the research as applicable to everyday life as possible

82
Q

primary data definition

A

data collected first hand by a researcher. May be through experimentation, observation, or survey (COLLECTED FROM THE RESEARCHER)

83
Q

secondary data definition

A

data sourced from other prior to research (FROM OTHER, ALREADY COMPLETED STUDIES)

84
Q

Quantitative data definition

A

data that is expressed numerically. May be collected via closed ended surveys, rating scales or multiple choice questions.

85
Q

Qualitative data definition

A

expressed non-numerically. Collected through open-ended questionares and interviews.

86
Q

objective data definition

A

factual data that is observed and measured independently of personal data. (COLLECTED USING MEASUREMENT TOOLS THAT PRODUCE REPEATABLE RESULTS)

87
Q

subjective data definition

A

informed by personal opinion, perception, or interpretation. (COMES FROM PARTICIPANTS OWN QUALITATIVE DESCRIPTIONS AND SELF-REPORTS)

88
Q

self reports definition

A

collect subjective data that can be both qualitative and/or quantitative, aimed at gather data related to the subjective experinece of the person and, if the questions are open-ended, can result in rich descriptive data.

89
Q

processing qualitative data meaning

A

when data is first collected, it is in a raw, unprocessed form. Researchers must process all numerical information.

90
Q

descriptive statistics definition

A

statistics that summarise, organise and describe data.

91
Q

outliers definition

A

values that differ significantly from the other values in a data set, as they make the mean a less accurate summary of the average data value.

92
Q

how do outliers occur

A

through measurement and recording errors, thus negatively impact the validility of the research

93
Q

percentage formula

A

given number/ total number x 100

94
Q

percentage change formula

A

old number - new number / old number x 100

95
Q

central tendency definition

A

descriptive statistics that summarise a data set by describing the centre of the distribution of the data set with a single value

96
Q

define mean

A

average of all data as a single value

97
Q

how is mean calculated

A

by adding up all the total of the data values and then dividing this total by the number of data values in the set.

98
Q

define median

A

the middle value in a data set ordered from lowest to highest

99
Q

how to calculate the median

A

identify the middle number when ordered from lowest to highest, if there are two values add them together and then divide by 2

100
Q

mode definition

A

the most frequently occuring value in a data set

101
Q

measure of variability/ spread definition

A

statistics that summarise and describe the overall spread and distribution of a data set.

102
Q

what are the two measures of spread

A

range, standard deviation

103
Q

range definition

A

a value obtained by subtracting the lowest value in a data set from the highest value - a summary of the overall dispersion/ distribution of scores

104
Q

standard deviation definition

A

show how much the data is deviated from the mean and shows the dispersion/ spread of data which provides more detailed information about the true nature of a data set compared to the range.

105
Q

tables definition

A

organise and summarise data in a more accessible format for researchers as well as show the relationship between certain variables

106
Q

bar charts definition

A

graph displaying the relationship between at least two variables using rectangular bars with height or lengths proportional to the values they represent.

107
Q

line charts definition

A

displaying the relationship between at least two variables using a straight line to connect data points.

108
Q

accuracy definition

A

refers to how close a measurement is to the true value or quantity being measured.

109
Q

precision definition

A

refers to how closely a set of measurement values agree with eachother but give no indication of how close the measurement is to the true values

110
Q

systematic error definition

A

errors in data that differ from the true value by a consistent amount

111
Q

consistancy/ systematicness definition

A

repeating measurements will not improve the presence of systematic errors, meaning the accuracy of the measurement is affected.

112
Q

systematic error may occur due to

A

environmental factors, observational/research error, incorrect measurement instrument calibration

113
Q

random error definition

A

errors in data that are unsystematic and occur due to chance, meaning the precision of the measurement is affected as they do not occur in a consistent way.

114
Q

random error may occur due to

A

poorly controlled or varying measurement procedures, imperfect or faculty measurement tools, variations in measurement contexts.

115
Q

random errors may be reduced by

A

repeating and conduction more measurements, calibrating measurement tools correctly, refining measurement procedures.

116
Q

uncertainty of measurement definition

A

lack of knowledge regarding the true value and less quantifiable nature of what is being measured.

117
Q

repeatability definition

A

the extent to which the same study or measure used under the same conditions will produce the same results

118
Q

reproducibility definition

A

extent to which the same study or measure, used under different people or procedure, will produce the same results.

119
Q

robust definition

A

findings are ones that will be produced again when they data is collected from another sample.

120
Q

validility definition

A

refers to the extend to which psychological tools and investigations truly support their findings or conclusions.

121
Q

internal validility definition

A

extent to which an investigation measures what it claims to

122
Q

external validility

A

only considered when internal validility is present. Is the extent to which the results of the investigation can be applied to similar individuals in different settings.

123
Q

conclusion definition

A

a statement that summarises the findings of a study, including whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected

124
Q

implications definition

A

the impact the study might have on the population to relevant theory or future research.

125
Q

ethical concepts definition

A

refer to the broad/general principles that can help researchers and students of psychology act and think in a more morally-conscious way.

126
Q

list the 5 ethical concepts

A
  1. Beneficience
  2. integrity
  3. Respect
  4. Justice
  5. Non-malifcence
127
Q

beneficience definition

A

the comittment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks or harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action.

128
Q

integrity definition

A

quality of moral consistency, honesty, and truthfulness with oneself and others.

129
Q

respect definition

A

Human subjects must be treated as autonomous and able to make responsible choices. Respect for persons incorporates at least two ethical convictions: (1) that individuals should be treated as autonomous agents, and (2) that persons with diminished autonomy are entitled to protection

130
Q

justice definition

A

obligation to ensure that there is a fair consideration of completing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action.

131
Q

non maleficence definition

A

avoiding causing harm. Implies that the harm resulting from any position or course of action should not be disproportionate to the benefits from any position or course of action.

132
Q

ethical guidelines definition

A

procedures and principles used to ensure that participants are safe and respected

133
Q

identify the 6 ethical guildlines

A
  1. confidentiality
  2. Informed consent and procedures
  3. Use of deception
  4. Debriefing
  5. Voluntary participation
  6. withdrawal rights
134
Q

confidentiality definition

A

the privacy, protection and security of participants personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results including the removal of identifying elements.

135
Q

informed consent and procedures definition

A

processes that ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (physical and psychological) before agreeing to participate in the study

136
Q

use of deception definition

A

act of intentionally misleading participants about the true nature of a study or procedure. Only permisable when participants knowledge of the true purpose of the experiment may affect their behaviour while participating in the study, and subsequent validility of the experiment.

137
Q

debriefing definition

A

procedure that ensures that are the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions - must occur at the end of every experiment

138
Q

voluntary participation definition

A

ensures that there is no coercion or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely chose to be involved

139
Q

withdrawal rights definition

A

rights of participants to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment without penalty.

psychology 1 & 2 (5 decks)

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