section 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What does the dendrite do?

A

Brings the input to the cell.

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2
Q

What does the dendrite look like?

A

Like a tree’s branches or roots

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3
Q

What is the main role of the nervous system?

A

Communication—bringing information in from the outside world to the nervous system and brain to be analyzed and sending information from the brain and nervous system out to the body to interact with the outside world.

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4
Q

What does the axon look like?

A

The axon is of uniform thickness or diameter and can extend for as far as several feet in mammals, half the length of your entire body! Some axons branch, and these branches may extend to other regions of the brain or body.

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5
Q

What do some dendrites have?

A

Some have spines or small protrusions of the neuronal membrane the typically make contact with one other neuron.

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6
Q

What is the axon used for?

A

Transmitting electrical signals or releasing packets of chemical transmitters.

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7
Q

What does the myelin do?

A

Insulates the axons. Speeds up the conduction of the neuron’s electrical signals that travel down the axon.

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8
Q

What is the myelin?

A

A fatty substance made glial cells.

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9
Q

What does the axon do?

A

Transmits output signals from the neuron

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10
Q

What are Nodes of Ranvier?

A

Small gaps in the myelin.

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11
Q

What do the Nodes of Ranvier do?

A

They allow the axon inside to gain access to the fluid outside the cell, which is important for sending electrical signals.

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12
Q

Where is the nucleus found?

A

The cell body, or soma.

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13
Q

Where does the axon begin and end?

A

Axons begin at the soma, at a section of the axon called the axon hillock, and end in slightly wider sections called the axon terminals.

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14
Q

What happens at the axon terminal?

A

The neuron will release its signal in the form of a neurotransmitter, passing the information to the next neuron. Most of the time the signal is received at one of that other neurons dendritic spines.

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15
Q

What is a synapse?

A

c

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16
Q

What is the synaptic cleft?

A

It’s the space between where two neurons connect.

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17
Q

What is a presynaptic neuron?

A

The first neuron in a synapse.

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18
Q

What is a postsynaptic neuron?

A

The second neuron receiving the signal.

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19
Q

The axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron is usually filled with what?

A

Spherical packets (or vesicles) of signaling chemicals called neurotransmitters.

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20
Q

Where are neurotransmitters produced?

A

Neurotransmitters are usually produced in the soma and are sent down the axon to the terminal.

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21
Q

How do neurotransmitters travel?

A

At the proper time, the neurotransmitters are then released to float across the synaptic cleft and bind to specialized receptors that receive the neurotransmitter signal on the postsynaptic neuron.This method of signaling across the synaptic cleft is highly customizable and plays a large role in neural communication.

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22
Q

What does a neuron’s shape depend on?

A

Their job in the nervous system.

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23
Q

What are the three types of neurons?

A

Motor neurons, sensory neurons, and interneurons.

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24
Q

What do motor neurons do and how do they look?

A

Motor neurons that bring movement commands to the muscles tend to have a soma at one end of the cell surrounded by a small set of dendrites and then a very large, long axon going out to the muscle.

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25
Q

What do sensory neurons do and how do they look?

A

Sensory neurons vary widely and are different from motor neurons,as their role is to bring sensory input from the body to the brain. Some sensory neurons have dendrites at both ends connected by a long axon with a cell body on a branch in the middle.

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26
Q

What do interneurons look like and how do they work?

A

They work to connect other neurons within the nervous system and are often quite small without long axons or large complex dendritic arbors

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27
Q

The central nervous system can generally be divided up into which two types of tissue?

A

Grey Matter and White Matter

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28
Q

What is grey matter made of?

A

This is made of the cell bodies and dendritic arbors of neurons.

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29
Q

What is white matter made of?

A

This is made of the myelinated axons of the neurons.

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30
Q

When the brain is opened, what is the color difference between the axons and the cell bodies and dendrites?

A

The axons are lighter in color while the cell bodies and dendrites are tan or darker grey. tan (depending on if the brain has been preserved or is fresh)

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31
Q

Where are the grey matter and white matter located?

A

In the brain, the grey matter is located mostly on the outside with the white matter tucked inside.

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32
Q

How is it different in the spinal cord?

A

The white matter axons are on the outside, and it is the cell bodies that are tucked inside the structure.

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33
Q

What are glia or glial cells?

A

The non-neuronal cells found in the nervous system.

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34
Q

How are new glial cells produced?

A

New glial cells are produced throughout the life of an organism.

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35
Q

What do Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have in common?

A

Both myelinating glial.

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36
Q

What is the difference between Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells?

A

Oligodendrocytes myelinate axons in the central nervous system (the brain and the spinal cord), Schwann cells myelinate axons in the peripheral nervous system (the nerves in your tissues, skin, muscles, internal organs, etc.).

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37
Q

What is the most common type of glial cell?

A

Astrocyte.

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38
Q

What the roles of an astrocyte?

A

One critical role of astrocytes is to regulate the chemical makeup of the extracellular fluid in the space between the cells in the nervous system. Astrocytes do this by removing excess signaling molecules and maintaining the proper balance of ions. They can also react to tissue damage. Astrocytes send out long extensions that wrap around blood vessels in the brain to form part of the blood brain barrier.

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39
Q

What does the blood barrier do?

A

The blood barrier keeps infections from damaging the neurons.

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40
Q

What are the restrictions of the blood barrier?

A

The blood barrier makes it more difficult for nutrient molecules to pass from the bloodstream into the brain to nourish the cells there. The restriction of the blood brain barrier also makes it more difficult to deliver drugs to the brain that might be helpful in treating diseases or disorders of the nervous system.

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41
Q

What are microglia?

A

They are smaller than the other glial cells (micro) and they are the immune cells of the brain.

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42
Q

What do microglia do?

A

They protect the brain from toxins, diseases, invaders, bacteria, and virues.

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43
Q

Why does the brain need seperate immune cells?

A

The brain needs separate immune cells because of the blood barrier which isolates the brain.

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44
Q

What are the negatives of microglia?

A

Microglia can cause inflammation in the brain (alzheimer’s) because of hyperactive microglia.

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45
Q

What are the three main layers of meninges surrounding the central nervous system?

A

Dura matter, pia matter, and the arachnoid matter.

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46
Q

What is the first layer of the Central Nervous System?

A

The dura matter which is thick and leathery. Between the skull and the dura, there is the epidural space which is full of fat to absorb shock from sudden blows to the head

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47
Q

What is the second layer of the Central Nervous System?

A

The arachnoid membrane, which features long stringy components that look like spider webs. Between the dura and arachnoid layers, there is a very thin space called the subdural space

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48
Q

What is the third layer of the Central Nervous System?

A

Below the arachnoid space is the subarachnoid space which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid, which cushions and protects the brain.

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49
Q

What is the innermost layer of the Central Nervous System?

A

The last layer is the pia mater, which is a thin layer that protects the brain matter from the cerebrospinal fluid in the subarachnoid space.

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50
Q

What are the four lobes of the brain?

A

Frontal Lobe, Parietal Lobe, Temporal Lobe, Occipital Lobe

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51
Q

What does the Frontal Lobe do?

A

The frontal lobe is located in the front of the brain (hence its name). Its responsible thinking, decision making, problem solving, reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language.

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52
Q

What does the Parietal Lobe do?

A

Located just behind the frontal lobe, it is the region of the brain that processes the sense of touch, as well as temperature, pain, and body position. Also important for understanding where a person’s body is within a certain environment (like a classroom).

53
Q

What does the Temporal Lobe do?

A

2nd largest lobe. They sit behind the ears. They process auditory, speech, music, memory, and object recognition

54
Q

What does the Occipital Lobe do?

A

Located at the back of the cerebrum and works to process and analyze visual information coming in from the eyes.

55
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in our behavioural and emotional responses.

56
Q

What is the amygdala?

A

This is a small part of your brain. It’s a major processing center for your emotions. The primary job is to regulate emotions, such as fear, motivation, and aggression.

57
Q

What is the hippocampus?

A

It has a major role in learning and long term memory.

58
Q

What is the thalamus?

A

A relay station of all incoming motor (movement) and sensory information — hearing, taste, sight and touch (but not smell) — from your body to your brain.

59
Q

What is the hypothalamus?

A

Its main function is to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis.

60
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

A self-regulating process by which an organism can maintain internal stability while adjusting to changing external conditions.

61
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A

This is known for releasing important growth hormones.

62
Q

What is the pineal gland?

A

The pineal gland produces melatonin, a serotonin-derived hormone which modulates sleep patterns in both circadian and seasonal cycles.

63
Q

What is the basal ganglia?

A

The “basal ganglia” refers to a group of subcortical nuclei responsible primarily for motor control, as well as other roles such as motor learning, executive functions and behaviors, and emotions.

64
Q

Where and what is the brainstem?

A

The brainstem is located at the very bottom of the brain and is the stalk that connects the rest of your brain to the spinal cord.

65
Q

What are the three subdivisions of the brainstem?

A

There are three subdivisions of the brainstem: the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla.

66
Q

Where is and what does the midbrain do?

A

The topmost part. Helps control eye movements and the pupillary light reflex, integrate visual information from the eyes with auditory information from the inner ear.

67
Q

Where is and what does the pons do?

A

Middle portion. The pons contains nuclei for coordinating facial movements, chewing muscles, hearing, and balance.

68
Q

Where is and what does the medulla do?

A

The bottom-most part. The medulla contains nuclei dedicated to relaying touch sensations from the face, swallowing food, and vomiting, as well as regulating blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, and other functions.

69
Q

Describe the location of the spinal cord in relation to the brain.

A

The spinal cord is located below the brainstem.

70
Q

What is the main function of the spinal cord?

A

The main function of the spinal cord is to conduct information between the brain and the body.

71
Q

What is the role of the white matter in the spinal cord?

A

The white matter in the spinal cord contains the axons of the pathways that transmit information.

72
Q

Explain the role of the grey matter in the spinal cord.

A

The grey matter in the spinal cord contains cell bodies that help relay sensory information and control spinal reflexes.

73
Q

What are some examples of information that the spinal cord transmits between the brain and the body?

A

The spinal cord transmits information regarding touch, pain, temperature, body position, and motor commands.

74
Q

What is the top section of the spinal cord called?

A

The top section of the spinal cord is called the cervical spinal cord.

75
Q

What body parts does the cervical spinal cord innervate?

A

The cervical spinal cord innervates the arms, neck, and shoulders.

76
Q

What is the function of the thoracic spinal cord?

A

The thoracic spinal cord carries information to and from the chest and torso.

77
Q

Which section of the spinal cord innervates the hips and fronts of the legs?

A

The lumbar spinal cord innervates the hips and fronts of the legs.

78
Q

What body parts does the sacral spinal cord innervate?

A

The sacral spinal cord innervates the buttocks, backs of the legs, bladder, and genitals.

79
Q

How are nerves connected to the spinal cord?

A

Nerves run between each vertebra and carry information to and from specific sections of the spinal cord.

80
Q

Why are the cervical and lumbar areas of the spinal cord enlarged?

A

The cervical and lumbar areas are enlarged to accommodate the increased amount of skin and muscle they target, as they carry information to and from the arms and legs.

81
Q

Describe the ventricular system.

A

The ventricular system is a series of open holes or cavities inside the central nervous system that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It includes the lateral ventricles, third ventricle, cerebral aqueduct, and fourth ventricle.

82
Q

What is the function of the ventricular system?

A

The ventricular system serves to circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) throughout the central nervous system, providing buoyancy, protection, and waste removal for the brain.

83
Q

Define cerebral aqueduct.

A

The cerebral aqueduct is a narrow passage in the midbrain that connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle, allowing the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the ventricular system.

84
Q

What is the function of the choroid plexus?

A

The choroid plexus produces new cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

85
Q

How does CSF help protect the brain?

A

CSF helps the brain float, preventing it from being pulled downward by gravity or resting on the floor of the skull.

86
Q

Describe the role of CSF in flushing out signaling chemicals in the brain.

A

CSF helps get rid of old signaling chemicals in the brain to prevent them from building up over time.

87
Q

What is the purpose of CSF in washing away toxins or infectious particles?

A

CSF helps wash away toxins or infectious particles in the central nervous system.

88
Q

Describe the peripheral nervous system.

A

The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves or axons and ganglia that relay information between the brain and the body.

89
Q

What is the function of the peripheral nervous system?

A

The peripheral nervous system helps the brain stay in touch with the physical environment and allows the body to respond to it.

90
Q

Define ganglia in the context of the peripheral nervous system.

A

Ganglia are clusters of cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system that relay information between the brain and the body.

91
Q

What are the two subsections of the peripheral nervous system?

A

The two subsections are the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

92
Q

What is the role of the somatic nervous system?

A

The somatic nervous system is responsible for bringing information to and from the tissues of the body through the axons entering and leaving the spinal cord. This system is under voluntary control, meaning you’re aware of the sensations caused by these nerves.

93
Q

How does the peripheral nervous system differ from the central nervous system in terms of protection?

A

Unlike the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system is not protected by bone and is more susceptible to damage. It is also not protected by the blood-brain barrier.

94
Q

Describe the vulnerability of the peripheral nervous system to infection and toxins.

A

The peripheral nervous system, like the rest of the body, is more open to infection and toxins since it is not protected by the blood-brain barrier.

95
Q

Describe the somatic nervous system.

A

The somatic nervous system consists of nerves that bring motor commands to the muscles of the head and neck and bring sensory input from those regions. It is under voluntary control and allows conscious sensations and movement of these body parts.

96
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system responsible for?

A

The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary responses and regulates the functions of internal organs, smooth muscles, and glands. “Rest and digest.”

97
Q

Define the term ‘autonomia’.

A

‘Autonomia’ is a Greek word meaning ‘independence’, which is fitting as the autonomic nervous system can function without conscious effort.

98
Q

How does the autonomic nervous system differ from the somatic nervous system?

A

The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary responses, while the somatic nervous system is under voluntary control. Additionally, the autonomic nervous system regulates internal organs, smooth muscles, and glands, whereas the somatic nervous system focuses on the head, neck, and sensory input.

99
Q

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

A

The two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.

100
Q

Describe the sympathetic nervous.

A

The sympathetic nervous system is a division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the ‘fight or flight’ response.

101
Q

What is the role of the adrenal glands in the sympathetic nervous system?

A

The adrenal glands produce the stress response and prepare the body to respond to a stressor.

102
Q

How does the sympathetic nervous system prepare the body for a stressor?

A

It increases heart rate and blood pressure, breathing rate, and sweat production, while decreasing saliva and tear production.

103
Q

Define ganglia in the context of the sympathetic nervous system.

A

Ganglia are specialized chain-like structures located next to the spine that relay information between neurons in the sympathetic division.

104
Q

What are the targets of sympathetic neurons?

A

The targets include the heart, lungs, digestive system, secretory glands, and eyes.

105
Q

Describe the function of the sympathetic nervous system.

A

The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the body’s fight-or-flight response, preparing the organism to respond to threats and escape danger.

106
Q

What are the potential consequences of long-term activation of the sympathetic nervous system?

A

Long-term activation of the sympathetic nervous system can lead to chronic stress and damage to organs and other systems of the body.

107
Q

Define the parasympathetic nervous system.

A

The parasympathetic nervous system is a division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for maintaining homeostasis and promoting rest and digestion.

108
Q

How does the parasympathetic nervous system differ from the sympathetic nervous system in terms of structure?

A

The parasympathetic nervous system has neurons originating from the brainstem and sacral spinal cord, and its ganglia are spread throughout the body, close to the target organs.

109
Q

What is the main function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

The main function of the parasympathetic nervous system is to focus on digesting food, growth and cell division, immune responses, energy storage, and maintaining homeostasis.

110
Q

Describe the role of the parasympathetic nervous system.

A

The role of the parasympathetic nervous system is to keep each of the systems of the body in balance.

111
Q

What is the effect of the parasympathetic nervous system on the heartbeat?

A

The parasympathetic nervous system slows down the heartbeat, allowing the organism to relax.

112
Q

How does the parasympathetic nervous system differ from the sympathetic nervous system in terms of their effect on target organs?

A

The parasympathetic nervous system has the inverse effect on target organs compared to the sympathetic nervous system.

113
Q

What is the relationship between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

A

The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems tend to be inhibitory or reduce the function of each other.

114
Q

What is the purpose of using different chemicals to send signals to target organs in each system?

A

Using different chemicals helps keep each system’s messages distinct.

115
Q

Describe how the electrical signals sent by the nervous system are mediated.

A

The electrical signals sent by the nervous system are mediated by the flow of charged atoms, or ions, across the neuron’s cell membrane.

116
Q

What are membrane potentials?

A

Membrane potentials are another way of describing the electrical charge that a cell has in comparison to the electrical charge found just outside its membrane.

117
Q

Define resting potential.

A

Resting potential is the state of a neuron when it is not sending a signal, functioning like the ‘off’ state of a light switch.

118
Q

How are ions involved in neural communication?

A

Ions found in the nervous system move in a way that allows neurons to communicate with each other and with other parts of the body.

119
Q

Describe the relationship between the binary code in a computer program and the encoding of information in the brain.

A

Both the binary code in a computer program and the encoding of information in the brain require at least two states to encode signals.

120
Q

What are ion channels and how do they function in the neuronal membrane?

A

Ion channels are proteins that form specialized openings in the neuronal membrane, allowing ions to pass through and affecting the membrane potential.

121
Q

Define membrane potential and explain how it can change in a neuron.

A

Membrane potential refers to the electrical charge difference across a neuron’s membrane. It can change as a result of signals from other neurons, which can make it more positive or more negative.

122
Q

Describe the process of gating in ion channels.

A

Gating is the process by which ion channels are opened or closed due to changes in the local environment of the membrane.

123
Q

What triggers voltage-gated ion channels to open and close?

A

Voltage-gated ion channels open and close in response to changes in the membrane potential.

124
Q

What are the ions involved in neuron communication?

A

The ions involved in neuron communication are sodium (Na+), chlorine (Cl-), potassium (K+), and various negatively charged anions.

125
Q

How does the resting potential of a neuron compare to the outside environment?

A

The inside of a neuron is more negatively charged than the outside in its resting state.

126
Q

Explain action potential.

A

An action potential is a sudden rise and fall in the electric potential across the membrane of a neuron when the neuron is active and firing. Usually lasting on the order of a few milliseconds, it is caused by the rapid opening and closing of ion channels. This change in the permeability of the neuronal membrane allows ions to flow into and out of the cell, changing the membrane potential for a brief period of time. Action potentials are also referred to as spikes, nerve impulses, or APs.

127
Q

Explain the first phase of action potential.

A

The rising phase. During the rising phase, the membrane potential becomes more and more positive due to an influx of positive ions. This is also called depolarization.

128
Q
A
129
Q
A