Module 1

Question 1

Define Developmental Psychology

Answer 1

the science of how and why people change over the life course.

Question 2

What is one of the most salient reasons to study developmental psychology?

Answer 2

to gain a better understanding of child rearing.

Question 3

Besides gaining a better understanding of child rearing, what are 2 other reasons to study developmental psychology?

Answer 3

1) To gain a better understanding of how our social policy decisions influence development. (Ie: intelligence testing and learning disabilities)

2) To gain insights into human nature more broadly. (Ie: attachment and relationships)

Question 4

Plato and Aristotle believed that the welfare of society depended on proper child rearing. However, how did they differ in how they believed that children developed and acquired knowledge?

Answer 4

Plato believed that children are born with innate, conceptual knowledge.

Aristotle believed that all knowledge arises from experience.

Question 5

John Locke viewed children as a “tabula rasa”. What does this term mean?

Answer 5

Blank slate.

(He viewed learning and development as the product of the environment and therefore that discipline was more important than individual autonomy or freedom, and this was crucial for human development.)

Question 6

In contrast to John Locke’s view of children, Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed that children learn best from _______________.

Answer 6

Their own interactions with the world.

(He argued that children should have no formal education before the age of 12, so they could have the space and freedom to explore and develop independently.)

Question 7

Research on children’s development was largely driven by what two societal forces?

Answer 7

Social Reform & Theory of Evolution.

Question 8

Which early philosopher believed that children came into the world as a “tabula rasa”?

A) Locke

B) Rousseau

C) Plato

D) Aristotle

Answer 8

A) John Locke

Question 9

Who wrote A Biographical Sketch of an Infant in 1877?

Answer 9

Darwin.

(with Darwin’s work, theorists began to speculate that studying child development might lead to insights into human nature more generally. Indeed, Darwin himself was very interested in child development and published detailed observations of his own children’s development in A Biographical Sketch of an Infant).

Question 10

Early psychologists, including ________ and _________, were early proponents of the importance of childhood and developmental theory.

Answer 10

Sigmund Freud, John Watson.

(Freud emphasized the importance of parenting in long-term development, while Watson was one of the first behaviourists to study learning in children.)

Question 11

What are the 7 key themes in developmental psychology?

Answer 11

1) Nature and nurture
2) The active child
3) Continuity vs. discontinuity
4) Mechanisms of development
5) Sociocultural context
6) Individual differences
7) Social impact of research

Question 12

Define Nature

Answer 12

Our biological endowment; the genes we receive from our parents.

Question 13

Define Nurture

Answer 13

The environments, both physical and social, that influence our development.

Question 14

What is interaction (in nature vs nurture)?

Answer 14

Epigenetics reflect the interaction of nature and nurture. That is, how changes in gene expression are mediated by the environment.

Question 15

What does the idea of the “active child” focus on?

Answer 15

How children shape and contribute to their own development.

(Children’s actions can evoke reactions from other people and the environment, further contributing to development. For example, Eye gaze and Interpreting experiences and self-regulation).

Question 16

What is one of the very earliest choices that children can make?

Answer 16

Eye gaze – Children choose where to direct their eyes, showing interest in different types of stimuli.

Question 17

Briefly describe the idea of Continuity vs. Discontinuity.

Answer 17

The idea here is the trajectory by which things change over time – is developmental change continuous like a growing tree, or discontinuous like the change from a caterpillar to a butterfly?

Question 18

Define Continuous.

Answer 18

Not much elemental change; incremental growth (e.g., getting bigger).

Question 19

Define Discontinuous.

Answer 19

Qualitatively different at different stages; changing in “steps” (e.g., changing forms).

Question 20

What are 4 underlying mechanisms that influence how children develop?

Answer 20

1) Biological: epigenetic changes, brain maturation

2) Behavioural: learning from the environment, rewards and punishments

3) Social: imitating and learning from others

4) Cognitive information-processing: gaining both general and specific knowledge

Question 21

What are some examples of Sociocultural Context in developmental psychology?

Answer 21

Children grow up in context. Development is influenced by children’s physical and social environment, culture, economic situation, and historical era.

Examples: Daycare, ethnic minority status, socioeconomic status (SES).

Question 22

The average poverty rate for children in Canada is ______, but for Indigenous children this rate is _______.

Answer 22

15%, 40%.

Question 23

Developmental psychologist Sandra Scarr (1992) postulated what 4 factors through which individual differences are related to development?

Answer 23

1) Genetic differences: This is probably the most obvious mechanism behind individual differences.

2) Differences in treatment: Parents, teachers, and other socializing adults treat each child differently. This is often because of individual differences related to genetics, like temperament.

3) Differences in reactions: Even though the same event might happen, people interpret and react to those events differently. For example, think of all of the different ways a child might react to getting a disappointing grade on a spelling test.

4) Different choices on environments: Different children choose different environments, activities, friends, etc that in turn influence their development. For example, some children may be interested in soccer while others are interested in art classes.

Question 24

According to Sandra Scarr, which of the following is NOT an example of individual differences in development?

A) Genes that predispose one child to be shy while another is outgoing

B) Molly is more physically attractive than her younger sister, and evokes different reactions from their peers

C) Harry and Ron are identical twins. Harry enjoys playing basketball while Ron prefers football.

D) All of these examples reflect individual differences in development.

Answer 24

D) All of these examples reflect individual differences in development.

Question 25

What is reliability?

Answer 25

The degree to which independent measurements of a given behaviour are consistent.

Question 26

What is validity?

Answer 26

The degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

Question 27

What is Inter-Rater Reliability?

Answer 27

The amount of agreement in the observations of different raters who witness the same behaviour.

Question 28

What is Test-Retest Reliability?

Answer 28

The degree of similarity of a participant’s performance on two or more occasions.

Question 29

What is Internal Validity?

Answer 29

The degree to which effects observed within experiments can be attributed to the factor that the researcher is testing

(Can effects within the experiment be attributed to the variables that the researcher intentionally manipulated? For example, are improvements in children’s behaviour related to a parenting intervention or something else like growth or time?)

Question 30

What is external validity?

Answer 30

The degree to which results can be generalized beyond the particulars of the research.

(For example, research on children who have a diagnosis of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is often completed in a one-on-one environment in a room with little to no distractions (and often no window!). How do these findings apply to their behaviour at school, which is full of distractions?)

Question 31

What is the primary goal of studies that use a correlational design?

Answer 31

To determine whether children who differ in one variable also differ in predictable ways in other variables. That is, is there a relationship between two variables of interest?

Question 32

The direction and strength of a correlation is measured by a statistic called the ______________.

Answer 32

Correlation coefficient.

Question 33

A correlation is positive when……..

Answer 33

high values of one variable are associated with high values of the other variable, as well as when low values of one are associated with low values of the other.

Question 34

Acorrelation is negative when…….

Answer 34

high values of one are associated with low values of the other.

Question 35

True or False?

Correlation does not equal causation.

Answer 35

True.

A significant correlation only tells us that two variables change in predictable ways together – no order to specified. Thus, we cannot say that one variable causes the other.

Question 36

What is the third variable problem?

Answer 36

A relationship between two variables may in fact be the result of some unspecified third variable.

Question 37

If correlational designs have so many limitations, what are 2 reasons why would we use them?

Answer 37

1) Influence of many variables of great interest—age, sex, race, and social class among them—cannot be studied experimentally.

2) Useful in describing relations among variables.

Question 38

What are 3 research designs used in developmental psychology?

Answer 38

1) Cross-sectional Design

2) Longitudinal Design

3) Microgenetic Design

Question 39

What is Cross-Sectional research design? List one pro and con of this method.

Answer 39

A research method in which participants of different ages are compared on a given behaviour or characteristic over a short period.

For example, a cross-sectional design could be used to examine differences in friendship between childhood and adolescence. In this case the researchers would collect data from a group of children and a group of adolescents separately.

Pros: Quick, easy

Cons: Unable to show relations over time, no patterns of change

Question 40

What is Longitudinal research design? List one pro and con of this method.

Answer 40

A method of study in which the same participants are studied twice or more over a substantial length of time.

For example, we might follow the same group of children from preschool through to grade 5 to examine if early aggressive behaviour predicts bullying.

Pros: Can look at relationship between variables over time

Cons: Slow, expensive, attrition rates, practice effects!

Question 41

What is Microgenetic research design? List one pro and con of this method.

Answer 41

A method of study in which the same participants are studied repeatedly over a short period.

For example, we could repeatedly test children who are on the verge of understanding Piaget’s conservation task.

Pros: Gives view of change process

Cons: Slow, expensive, difficult, practice effects!

Question 42

True or False?

The term “microgenetic design” has to do with researching genetics.

Answer 42

False.

This name has nothing to do with genetics, it comes from “micro” meaning close up and “genesis” meaning beginnings.

Question 43

What are 4 ways data can be collected with children?

Answer 43

1. Interviews and Questionnaires
2. Naturalistic and Structured Observations
3. Involuntary and Voluntary Responses
4. Psychophysiology

Question 44

Describe the Interviews and Questionnaires research method and list one pro and con of this method.

Answer 44

Interviews and questionnaires involve asking individuals to report on their experiences. This might involve asking questions directly to the child, or asking parents to report on their child’s experiences. Interviews can be structured or unstructured.

Pros: Generally quick and easy. Can be tailored to the child’s age.

Cons: Desirability bias, lack of insight, and reliance on language. Remember that children are still developing - they generally do not understand why they think or feel the way that they do, and thus may not have the capacity to self-report on their own experiences.

Question 45

Describe the Naturalistic and Structured Observations research method and list one pro and con of this method.

Answer 45

Naturalistic observations involve collecting data relatively unobtrusively. For example, researchers might observe how children learn to play games with each other on the playground.

Structured observations involved a more controlled environment in which the researchers use the same techniques to observe participants’ behaviours in a controlled environment. For example, a researcher may play the same game with a sample of children in order to compare their social skills.

Pros: High external validity, good for studying things we cannot experimentally manipulate (like social interactions)

Cons: Lack of control (especially naturalistic observations), can be difficult for infrequent target behaviour

Question 46

Describe the Involuntary and Voluntary Responses research method and list one pro and con of this method.

Answer 46

One of the biggest challenges in developmental psychology research is how to conduct research with infants – they cannot respond to a questionnaire or an experimental task the same way as older children, given their lack of language and motor control.

Involuntary responses are those that require little cognitive effort – this research often involves eye gaze, which develops early. For example, researchers might want to see if infants can discriminate between two stimuli, and can use a looking-time habituation task to do so (more on this in later modules!)

Voluntary responses, of course, are those that require an active response. The possibilities here are really endless – for example, we could ask children to complete a memory task, label novel objects, or sort shapes into conceptual categories.

Pros: Quick and easy, high internal validity
Cons: External validity?

Question 47

Describe the Psychophysiology research method and list one pro and con of this method.

Answer 47

In addition to behavioural and self-report data, developmental researchers can also collect information on things like heart rate, hormone levels, and brain activity. Psychophysiological measures are especially useful for studying the biological mechanisms associated with development.

Pros: Often considered more objective than self-report data

Cons: Can be expensive and time consuming. Can be difficult to obtain reliable measurements with children (e.g., how to get a child to lay still in an fMRI scanner?)

Question 48

What are 3 ethical concerns researchers in developmental psychology must be attentive to?

Answer 48

Vulnerability: Unlike most adults, children are considered a vulnerable population when it comes to research. This is mainly related to issues involving the capacity to provide informed consent and be able to express a desire to stop participating in the research if desired.

Informed consent: Children cannot provided informed consent to participate in research, as they may not understand the risks and benefits of participating or be able to communicate their willingness to participate (especially young children). Thus, a parent or guardian will provide informed consent for their child to participate.

Assent: Even though children cannot provide informed consent, researchers must be sensitive to their needs. Generally, children older than 7 years old must provide verbal or written agreement (assent) that they want to participate in the research. This should be done using child-friendly language to facilitate understanding. Since young children may lack this ability, researchers must be diligent for signs that the child does not want to participate or wants to stop (e.g., tiredness, irritability).

Question 49

Naturalistic observation would probably be the method of choice for a researcher interested in:

a) How children learn the meaning of a word

b) How preschoolers learn to count

c) The beliefs of children in an elementary school class about how smart their classmates are

d) The frequency of sexual harassment behaviour among adolescents

Answer 49

d) The frequency of sexual harassment behaviour among adolescents.

Question 50

magine that a researcher is interested in examining the stability of temperament (an individual difference) over infancy and early childhood. The most effective design for this research would be:

a) Cross-sectional

b) Longitudinal

c) Experimental

d) Microgenetic

Answer 50

b) Longitudinal

Question 51

A researcher finds a correlation coefficient of -.35 between children’s empathy and their aggressive behaviours. This means:

a) As empathy increases, aggressive behaviours also increase

b) As empathy increases, aggressive behaviours decrease

c) As empathy decreases, aggressive behaviours also decrease

d) Empathy and aggression do not vary in systematic ways

Answer 51

b) As empathy increases, aggressive behaviours decrease

Question 52

Define meta-analysis.

Answer 52

A method for combining the results from independent studies to reach conclusions based on all of them.

Question 53

What are nativists?

Answer 53

A major group of contemporary philosophers and psychologists who argues that evolution has created many remarkable capabilities that are present even in early infancy, particularly in areas of special importance, such as understanding basic properties of physical objects, plants and animals, and other people.

Question 54

What are empiricists?

Answer 54

Another major group of philosophers and psychologists, who have argued that infants possess general learning mechanisms that allow them to learn a great deal quite quickly, but that infants and young children lack the specialized capabilities that nativists attribute to them.

Question 55

What is the amygdala?

Answer 55

an area of the brain that is involved in emotional reactions.

Question 56

Kagan (2000) concluded that children have an innate moral sense, encompassing what five abilities that even our closest primate relatives lack?

Answer 56

1) the ability to infer the thoughts and feelings of others,

2) to apply the concepts of good and bad to one’s own behaviour,

3) to reflect on past actions,

4) to understand that negative consequences could have been avoided, and

5) to understand one’s own and others’ motives and emotions.

Question 57

The Earl of Shaftesbury’s effort at social reform brought partial success—a law forbidding employment of girls and of boys younger than what age?

a) 15

b) 5

c) 12

d) 10

Answer 57

d) 10

Question 58

What is a genome?

Answer 58

Each person’s complete set of hereditary information.

Question 59

Define epigenetics.

Answer 59

The study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment.

(Stated simply, epigenetics examines how experience gets under the skin.)

Question 60

What is methylation?

Answer 60

A biochemical process that influences behaviour by suppressing gene activity and expression.

Question 61

When do children start to speak?

Answer 61

Usually between 9 and 15 months of age.

Question 62

What is “crib speech”?

Answer 62

Toddlers (1- and 2-year-olds) often talk when they are alone in a room. Only if children were internally motivated to learn language would they practice talking when no one was present to react to what they are saying. This “crib speech” is entirely normal, and the practice probably helps toddlers learn language.

Question 63

Starting at around age _______ years, children sometimes pretend to be different people in make-believe dramas.

Answer 63

2.

Question 64

Researchers who view development as ____________ start from a common observation: children of different ages seem qualitatively
different.

Answer 64

Discontinuous.

Question 65

What are stage theories?

Answer 65

Approaches proposing that development involves a series of large, discontinuous, age- related phases.

Question 66

Define cognitive development.

Answer 66

The development of thinking and reasoning.

Question 67

What is effortful attention?

Answer 67

It involves voluntary control of one’s emotions and thoughts.

(It includes processes such as inhibiting impulses (e.g., obeying requests to put all of one’s toys away, as opposed to putting some away but then getting distracted and playing with the remaining ones); controlling emotions (e.g., not crying when failing to get one’s way); and focusing attention (e.g., concentrating on one’s homework despite the inviting sounds of other children playing outside).

Question 68

When people are controlling thoughts and emotions, brain activity is especially intense in connections between the ________ — a part of the brain that plays a large role in emotional reactions—and the _______ and _____________ —brain structures involved in setting and attending to goals

Answer 68

limbic area, anterior cingulate, prefrontal cortex

(Connections among these brain areas develop considerably during childhood, and their development appears to be one mechanism that underlies improving effortful attention during childhood.)

Question 69

Developmental mechanisms can be behavioural, _______, or ___________.

Answer 69

neural, genetic

Question 70

Define neurotransmitters.

Answer 70

Chemicals involved in communication among brain cells.

Question 71

6-month-olds average how many hours of sleep per day?

Answer 71

14–15 hours.

Question 72

What is the hippocampus?

Answer 72

A brain structure that is particularly important for learning and remembering.

Question 73

What is the Active Systems Consolidation Theory?

Answer 73

It’s a major theory of memory, which posits that two interconnected brain areas, the hippocampus and the cortex, simultaneously encode new information during learning.

The hippocampus can learn details of new information after one or two experiences; the cortex produces abstraction of general patterns over many experiences. The theory posits that in older children and adults, hippocampal memories are replayed during sleep, which allows opportunities for the cortex to extract general patterns from the specific memories stored in the hippocampus. The mechanism works in the opposite direction as well; learning general patterns improves the retention of details of new experiences of the same type.

Question 74

Active Systems Consolidation Theory led Werchan and Gómez (2014) to hypothesize that the benefits of sleep on infants’ memory for general patterns reflect functioning of the _________, whereas the benefits of sleep on preschoolers’ memory for specific experiences reflect functioning of the ___________.

*Hint: both blanks are areas of the brain.

Answer 74

cortex, hippocampus

(They proposed that prior to 18 to 24 months of age, the hippocampus is too immature to enable the rapid learning of the details of specific experiences; therefore, sleeping does not benefit memory for these specifics. However, the cortex is mature enough at this age to extract general patterns.)

Question 75

True or False:

Sleep is essential for learning and for healthy development in general.

Answer 75

True.

Question 76

Define sociocultural context.

Answer 76

The physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up any child’s environment.

Question 77

What are the most obviously important components of children’s sociocultural contexts ?

Answer 77

1) The people with whom they interact (parents, grandparents, siblings, day-care providers, teachers, friends etc)

2) The physical environment in which they live (house, childcare centre, school etc)

Other important (but less tangible) influences:

-Institutions (educational systems, religious institutions, sports leagues, social organizations)

-General characteristics of the child’s society (its economic and technological advancement; its values, attitudes, beliefs, and traditions; its laws and political structure)

Question 78

Define socioeconomic status (SES).

Answer 78

A measure of social class based on income and education.

Question 79

What is cumulative risk?

Answer 79

The accumulation of disadvantages over years of development.

Question 80

Resilient children are more likely than others to have what three characteristics?

Answer 80

1) positive personal qualities, such as high intelligence, an easygoing personality, and an optimistic outlook on the future;

2) a close relationship with at least one parent; and

3) a close relationship with at least one adult other than their parents, such as a grandparent, teacher, coach, or family friend

Question 81

What is the scientific method?

Answer 81

An approach to testing beliefs that involves choosing a question, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and drawing a conclusion.

Question 82

Define hypotheses.

Answer 82

Testable predictions of the presence or absence of phenomena or relations.

Question 83

What are the 4 basic steps of the scientific method?

Answer 83

1. Choosing a question to be answered
2. Formulating a hypothesis regarding the question
3. Developing a method for testing the hypothesis
4. Using the resulting data to draw a conclusion regarding the hypothesis

Question 84

What is a structured interview?

Answer 84

A research procedure in which all participants are asked to answer the same questions.

Question 85

What is a a clinical interview?

Answer 85

A procedure in which questions are adjusted in accord with the answers the interviewee provides.

(In this approach, the interviewer begins with a set of prepared questions, but if the child says something intriguing, the interviewer can depart from the script to follow up on the child’s lead.)

Question 86

What is a structured observation?

Answer 86

A method that involves presenting an identical situation to each participant and recording the participant’s behaviour.

Question 87

What is a naturalistic observation?

Answer 87

An examination of ongoing behaviour in an environment not controlled by the researcher

Question 88

What are variables?

Answer 88

Attributes that vary across individuals and situations, such as age, sex, and popularity.

Question 89

What is the direction-of-causation problem?

Answer 89

The concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, variable is the cause of the other.

Question 90

What are experimental designs?

Answer 90

A group of approaches that allow inferences about causes and effects to be drawn.

Question 91

What two techniques are crucial to experimental designs?

Answer 91

Random assignment and experimental control.

Question 92

What is random assignment?

Answer 92

A procedure in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment.

Question 93

What is experimental control?

Answer 93

The ability of researchers to determine the specific experiences of participants during the course of an experiment.

Question 94

What is the difference between an experimental group and a control group?

Answer 94

Experimental group = the group of participants in an experimental design who are presented the experience of interest.

Control group = the group of participants in an experimental design who are not presented the experience of interest but in other ways are treated similarly.

Question 95

What is an independent variable?

Answer 95

The experience that participants in the experimental group receive and that those in the control group do not receive.

Question 96

What is a dependent variable?

Answer 96

A behaviour that is measured to determine whether it is affected by exposure to the independent variable.

Question 97

The “turtleshell” technique is an example of a successful intervention that helps preschoolers cope with what?

a. The sense of isolation
b. Feelings of embarrassment
c. Bullying from peers
d. Their own anger

Answer 97

d. Their own anger

Question 98

Studies have shown that children’s testimony is usually accurate when which of the following conditions are met?

a. The interviewer does not ask leading questions.
b. One of the child’s parents is present.
c. The child and the interviewer are alone when the testimony is given.
d. The child is repeatedly prompted during the interview.

Answer 98

a. The interviewer does not ask leading questions.

Question 99

According to developmentalists, which of the following is true?

a. Development is most heavily influenced by nature.
b. Development is most heavily influenced by nurture.
c. Development is influenced by the joint workings of nature and nurture.
d. Nature and nurture are essentially the same.

Answer 99

c. Development is influenced by the joint workings of nature and nurture.

Question 100

What is meta-analysis?

a. The reproduction of a past study in order to confirm or debunk the results.

b. A philosophical exploration of an experiment or case study.

c. A method for combining and analyzing the results from several independent studies.

d. A list of all published articles related to a specific area of research.

Answer 100

c. A method for combining and analyzing the results from several independent studies.

Question 101

The concept of the “active child” refers to:

a. Observations of children at play.

b. Whether an infant sleeps through the night.

c. The importance of physical activity to child development.

d. How children contribute to their own development.

Answer 101

d. How children contribute to their own development.

Question 102

In recent decades, researchers have come to the conclusion that, after infancy, most developmental changes occur:

a. Gradually
b. Suddenly
c. Discontinuously
d. Externally

Answer 102

a. Gradually

Question 103

In the context of mechanisms of developmental change, the study of the development of “effortful attention” provides insights into:

a. Continuous versus discontinuous development.

b. The role of brain activity, genes, and learning experiences.

c. The complexity of the child’s sociocultural environment.

d. The role of the researcher in judging the validity of a study.

Answer 103

b. The role of brain activity, genes, and learning experiences.

Question 104

The physical, social, cultural, economic, and historical circumstances that make up a child’s environment are known as the:

a. Developmental foundation
b. Sociocultural context
c. Developmental stage
d. Socioeconomic status

Answer 104

b. Sociocultural context

Question 105

The first basic step in using the scientific method involves:

a. Developing a research plan.
b. Choosing a question.
c. Formulating a hypothesis.
d. Drawing a conclusion.

Answer 105

b. Choosing a question.

Question 106

In order to generalize her findings beyond the individuals who participated in her study, Dr. Liu needs to conduct additional research using participants from a variety of backgrounds. What quality of behavioral research is Dr. Liu addressing?

a. Interrater reliability
b. Internal validity
c. Test–retest reliability
d. External validity

Answer 106

d. External validity

Question 107

The experience that children in an experimental group receive—and which children in a control group do not receive—is referred to as the:

a. Dependent variable
b. Independent variable
c. Random assignment
d. Correlational design

Question 108

A team of researchers is studying whether stable individual differences exist in sleeping behavior at various ages. They decide to test 3-month-olds, 6-month-olds, and 9-month-olds. What type of design are they using to examine this question?

a. Longitudinal
b. Cross-sectional
c. Naturalistic observation
d. Microgenetic

Answer 108

b. Cross-sectional

Question 109

Which type of design is used to study developmental change as it is occurring by observing participants numerous times over a relatively short span of time?

a. Longitudinal
b. Cross-sectional
c. Structured observation
d. Microgenetic

Answer 109

d. Microgenetic

Question 110

By administering the same test to the same group of participants under similar conditions two or more times, a researcher can measure __________ reliability.

a. Internal
b. External
c. Test–retest
d. Interrater

Answer 110

c. Test–retest

Question 111

According to the Tri-Council guidelines, which of the following is not a stated ethical principle for conducting research with children?

a. Information about the child uncovered through the course of the study must not be revealed to the parent or guardian, regardless of its importance for that child’s welfare.

b. Unforeseen consequences must be dealt with when they arise during research.

c. Researchers must correct any inaccurate impressions that the child may develop as a result of the study.

d. The research must not harm the child, physically and psychologically.

Answer 111

a. Information about the child uncovered through the course of the study must not be revealed to the parent or guardian, regardless of its importance for that child’s welfare.