3. The Means to Success: Coping & Stress Management Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
1
Q

L-3 Health Tips?

A
  1. Accept the things you cannot change.
  2. Approach the things you can.
  3. Put your relationships to good use.
  4. Talk to animals, hug trees, live near the water—and meditate.
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2
Q

What is Coping?

A

Coping refers to the things that people do to reduce their stress.

The process by which people try to manage the perceived discrepancy
between the demands and resources they appraise in a stressful situation.

Includes efforts to manage internal and external demands, whether successful or not (do not confound the behaviour with the outcome!).

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3
Q

Coping is not a single event, it involves?

A

Continuous transactions with the environment and continuous appraisals/reappraisals.
→ A dynamic process.

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4
Q

When saying that someone is coping it does NOT mean?

A

That they are coping effectively.

Many coping strategies are associated with a maladaptive outcome :(

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5
Q

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping?

A
  1. Encounter a stimulus
  2. Then engage in Primary and secondary appraisal.
  3. Then (usually a series) of coping responses, not always effective just whatever you are doing.

Transactional because the coping response can have an effect on the stimulus itself and the primary and secondary appraisal.

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6
Q

Functions of Coping - Problem-Focused Coping?

A

Direct efforts to solve the problem.

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7
Q

Functions of Coping - Emotion-Focused Coping?

A

Efforts to manage emotions
generated by the stressful situation.

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8
Q

Functions of Coping - Relationship-Focused Coping?

A

Efforts to maintain and manage social relationships during stressful periods.

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9
Q

Problem-Focused Coping, two different perspectives?

A

Changing the situation:
- Thinking of options / Weighing pros & cons
- Making a plan of action / Formulating a list
- Increasing efforts to make things work

Changing ourselves:
- Seeking information from other sources
- Learning new skills / Practicing / Rehearsing
- Taking a course / Reading a book

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10
Q

Provide a few examples of Emotion-Focused Coping?

A

Denial (I told myself it didn’t happen.)
Escape-Avoidance (I avoided thinking about the problem.) Distancing (I tried to forget it and put it out of my mind.) Wishful Thinking (I wished it would go away.)
Emotional suppression (I tried not to cry.)
Emotional expression (I told others.)
Positive reappraisal (I focused on the bright side.)
Self-Care (I took a break.)
Social comparison (I reminded myself that I’m still better off.) Prayer (I prayed for things to get better.)
Substance use (I had a drink.)
Other Defence Mechanisms (e.g., intellectualizing), etc.

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11
Q

Provide a few examples of Relationship-Focused Coping?

A

Empathic responding (I tried to understand how other person felt.) Perspective taking (I tried to see things from person’s perspective.) Support seeking (I called a friend for help.)
Support provision (I tried to help the other person involved). Compromise (I tried to find a solution that was fair to all involved.) Interpersonal withdrawal (I spent time alone.)
Confrontation (I expressed anger to the other person.)

Mixed functions, interactive effects.

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12
Q

Meaning-Focused Coping?

A

Efforts to manage the meaning of an event or situation.

Drawing on beliefs (e.g., religious, spiritual, or beliefs about justice), values, and existential goals (e.g., purpose in life) to motivate and sustain coping and well-being in difficult times.

Related to a variety of postivtie outcomes.

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13
Q

Approach Coping?

A

Attempts to actively deal with the problem or manage the tension.
- cognitive (e.g., trying to see the positive) or behavioural (e.g., talking to a friend)

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14
Q

Avoidance Coping?

A

Attempts to distance oneself from the problem and not think about it.
- cognitive (e.g., trying not to think about it) or behavioural (e.g., drinking to reduce tension)

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15
Q

Approach vs. Avoidance

What are the possible benefits and costs of each?

A

Approach coping benefits; probably better early on trying to do something abut the situations, appropriate action, realise of emotions assimilation of trauma, stress reduction.

Costs: increased distress (keep trying and not getting anywhere), non-productive worry and rumination.

Avoidance coping benefits: Short-term stress reduction, allows for dosing (taking in the stress in small doses), increased hope and courage costs.

Costs: (tend to be greater than the benefits. Increased distress (problems don’t go away bc we ignore them), inmterferece with action, emotional numbness, disruptive behaviours.

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16
Q

What is the best way to cope?

A

No one way of coping is good for all situations all of the time…

Depends on personal attributes, abilities, contextual factors, social factors, controllability of the stressor, etc.

For example, avoidance is better than approach if the situation in uncontrollable; yet approach is better if one can take advantage of opportunities for control.

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17
Q

The best indicator of effective coping is….?

A

THE OUTCOME.

Was the goal accomplished?
Was the problem solved?
Was the challenge overcome?
Was there an impact on mood or health?
Was there an impact on the relationship?

Daily Process Methods can measure these

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18
Q

Psychological Resilience?(definition)

A

Positive adaptation or successful coping after a stressful or adverse situation.
→ Recovery from stress / adversity without a lasting impact.

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19
Q

What factors contribute to resilience?

A

Pretty high genetic factors, 55%-60%, while some studies show much lower result.
- Inherited epigenetic effects can contribute to resilience.

Both biological and environmental factors, especially early childhood experiences.
- The factors that predicts PTSD, the opposite is a predictor of resilience.

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20
Q

Resilience involves high levels of which 3 positive aspects of personality?

A

Self‐esteem, personal control, and optimism.
→ Similar to hardiness (control, commitment, challenge)

  • Involvement in life, set goals and overcome them: commitment.
  • See difficulties as challenges that can be overcome.
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21
Q

Health outcomes of resilience in old age?

A

Improved quality of life Independence in ADL
Faster cardiovascular recovery Increased longevity
Lower mortality risk
Better mental health
Greater happiness, well-being
Lower rates of depression
Higher life satisfaction
Successful aging (despite adversities)

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22
Q

How to effectively manage stress: Some recommendations from the research…?

A

Deal with things, problem-solve. (problem-solving / denial/avoidance)
- denial/avoidance can be effective in the short-term, we cannot think about something all the time.

Process and express your feelings. (disclosure / rumination)

Engage positive emotions; find benefits/meaning. (positive reappraisal)

Accommodate to the stressor as needed. (acceptance)

Find support and collaborate. (support-seeking / empathy / withdrawal)

Also: Interact with friendly animals. Spend time in nature. Meditate and be mindful.

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23
Q

Positive Reappraisal?

A
  • A highly adaptive strategy focused on gaining meaning from a stressful event.
  • Involves deriving personally relevant positive meaning from an experience in the face of its negative qualities.
  • Much more than simply looking on the bright side of things.
  • Requires a lot of work and time until you sincerely can see it from a different perspective.
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24
Q

Nowlan et al. (2016): Examined positive reappraisal in response to adverse life events among older adults (62-88).

They found that positive reappraisal was associated with…?

A

Higher current and future positive emotion, as well as lower anxiety and depression.

PR coping intervention programs show success in reducing anxiety and improving clinical outcomes.

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25
Q

Disclosure?

A

An adaptive strategy in which a person describes their feelings about a stressful or traumatic experience.

Similar to emotional expression; an important aspect of emotion regulation.

Disclosure can be verbal or written.
- Ideally with the intent of resolving or working through things…

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26
Q

Which type of disclosure is most effective? + Verbal rumination and effect on the other person

A

Verbal is most effective, followed by written, and not disclosing is maladaptive.

If not goal is resolving, it becomes a form of verbal rumination. Stress is contagious, is can have a negative effect for them. -> Reminder to think about the person on the other end.

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27
Q

Cepeda et al. (2008): Asked cancer patients to write a story about how cancer affected their lives for 20 minutes/week for 3 weeks.

Patients whose narratives contained more emotional disclosure demonstrated?

A

Significantly less pain and reported higher well-being compared to less emotional narratives.

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28
Q

The Social Context of Stress?

A

Our social networks can be seen as buffer. But negative social networks can have negative effects.

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29
Q

What is Tend-and-Befriend? + women vs. men

A

People also respond to stress with social behaviours.

Greater tendency for women to engage in tend-and-befriend then men.
Men still do engage in the tend-and-befriend response, maybe just not as much.

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30
Q

Tend-and-Befriend evolutionary perspective?

A

We are stronger when we are working with other people.
We are weaker as individuals.

31
Q

Tend-and-Befriend and Oxytocin?

A

Oxytocin plays a role in attachment, pair-bonding, trust, social recognition, and stress reduction; also out-group aggression (parent protecting its child).

  • Oxytocin reinforces social bonds, it is an adaptive response.
  • Oxytocin is far more complicated than cortisol.
  • Oxytocin, buffers the effects of cortisol.
32
Q

The Stress Buffering Hypothesis?

A

Social support is a protective factor; it buffers the impact of stress and environmental demands on the individual.

When social support is high, the impact of stress is reduced.

If there is no stress, then there is no health benefit to social support.

33
Q

Contrast the Stress Buffering Hypothesis with The Direct Effect model?

A

The direct effect model just says that higher social support leads to better health, it is not a moderator of stress.

34
Q

Evidence for the Stress Buffering Hypothesis in couples coping with early-stage dementia.

Examined whether the negative relationship between perceived stress and quality of life can be buffered by perceived social support in patients with dementia and in their caregivers.

And found that?

A
  • Moderation model, when stress is high that’s when high social support leads to better quality of life.
  • Whereas, when stress is low, the level of social support has no benefit to quality of life.
35
Q

Types of Social Support - Emotional/Esteem?

A

Feeling loved and cared for by others; valued and respected by others; empathy, concern, positive regard.

36
Q

Types of Social Support - Tangible/Instrumental?

A

Receiving material aid, assistance from others.

37
Q

Types of Social Support - Informational Support?

A

Getting advice & information from others.

38
Q

Types of Social Support - Companionship Support?

A

Availability of others to spend time with.

39
Q

Types of Social Support - Invisible Support?

A
  • The support is not perceived, or interpreted as helpful. Even more beneficial than some other forms of support.
  • When you are not aware of it, maybe not feel like a burden or independence compromised.
40
Q

Types of Social Support - Which type of support is best?

A
  • The stress buffering hypothesis seems to hold up in various types of social support.
  • But across situations emotional support seems to be the most effective, but it depends on the situation.
41
Q

Not all support is good…
Protective Buffering & Solicitousness?

A

Protective Buffering:
Keeping information from someone in order to protect them; avoiding potential for negative interaction.

Solicitousness:
Expressing concern; helping without request.

  • These forms of interaction are maladaptive for both parties involved
  • Problematic bc taking away the person’s sense of independence and perceived control.
42
Q

Does providing support also have benefits for health?

A

Research has found health-related benefits associated with helping and prosocial behaviour (e.g., volunteerism)…

  • Stress-buffering effects via increased oxytocin
  • Reduced hypertension
  • Reduced depression

:)

43
Q

Quality vs. Quantity - Social Support & Social Networks?

A

Social Support:
Functional content and QUALITY of social relationships.

Social Networks:
Number QUANTITY of social relationships; degree of social integration.

Most research has found that quality matters more to health, but quantity DOES still matter.

44
Q

Social Networks & the Common Cold

Cohen et al. (1997) examined the role of social network diversity (# of different types of relationships) in contracting a cold.

Measured network diversity and then exposed subjects to cold virus and found that?

A
  • People with fewer than 4
    types of social roles were over 4 times more likely to catch cold than those with 6 or more roles.
  • Subjective loneliness also worsens cold symptoms.
45
Q

The Power of Social Networks

Fowler & Christakis (2008) followed a large social network of 4739 individuals from 1983 to 2003.

Identified clusters of happiness, what is this?

A
  • People surrounded by happy people are more likely to become happy themselves.
  • The relationship between people’s happiness extends up to three degrees of separation (for example, to the friends of one’s friends’ friends.
  • In other studies, similar results for tastes, health, wealth, beliefs, weight, etc.
46
Q

In research, social media use has been associated with…?

A
  • Loneliness, frustration, anger (after using FB).
  • Lower well-being and life satisfaction (after using FB).
  • Increasing depression.
  • Negative body image, with more visual use (more likely to effect young women than men).
  • Narcissism (w/increased visual use of social media, like sharing gym selfies).
  • Depression, anxiety, psych. distress
  • Anxiety of benign left out
47
Q

Some people interact less with family and friends because of technology.
Limiting social media use is associated with?

A

Decreased loneliness and isolation.

48
Q

Health Risks of Loneliness

Meta-analysis by Holt-Lunstad et al. (2015) examined loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality.

Results?

A

Increased likelihood of early mortality for
- Loneliness 29%
- Social Isolation 26%
- Living Alone 32%

49
Q

Why do we see an increased risk of mortality with social isolation?

A
  • Loneliness and isolation is stressful -> a stressor.
  • Social support is a buffer of stress, more isolation you lose that protective measure.
  • Continue to see an increase in loneliness after 2020. But loneliness, anxiety, and isolation was already on the rise before the pandemic.
  • (We should not only focus on the pandemic but the wider factors contributing to this.)
50
Q

The Importance of Healthy Relationships?

A

The health benefits of committed relationships, relationship satisfaction, and social connectedness have been well documented in research.

  • The number 1 factor to be healhty is maininting social realtionships.
  • But relationship satisfaction is important for this correlation.
  • (Overtime wealth is also linked with having healthy relationships, probably a bi-dictional link).
51
Q

Human-Animal Interaction (HAI)?

A

Interacting with friendly animals is associated with health benefits.

Physiological: reduced blood pressure; improved cardiovascular health; enhanced immune system functioning; improved pain management; lower cortisol output.

Psychosocial: improved mood; reduced aggression; increased trustworthiness and trust of others; reduced impact of stress.

  • Lowering our physiological response to stress.
  • People who live alone can benefit immensely from having a friendly pet.
  • Pet-ownership can make you feel better in your relationship -> pets evoke more positive emotions -> feel more positive in relationship
  • (The overwhelming of these studies use dogs, bc they are much easier to study than cats.)
52
Q

Benefits of HAI

Mention some select findings, he will not test us on specific ones, just have a general sense :)

A
  • Increased survival time after heart attack for dog owners.
  • Decreased heart rate from petting a dog.
  • Reduction of cardiovascular stress in the presence of a dog.
  • Reduced cortisol in healthcare workers after 5 minutes w/ therapy dog. Sign. reduction in minor health issues for 10 mos. after getting a dog.
  • Fewer doctor visits per year for elderly dog owners than non-owners.
53
Q

There is evidence that dog owners live longer than non-owners.

Why?

A

Dog ownership is associated with lower risk of death over the long term, which is possibly driven by a reduction in cardiovascular mortality.

(24% decreased risk of death for dog ownership)

54
Q

Pet owners showed lower reaction to stressors (mental arithmetic task and putting hand in ice water) and faster recovery compared to non- pet-owning participants who had a friend present.

In married couples, the presence of a pet attenuated the stress response more than the presence of the spouse (based on 2 stress tasks).

Why could this be?

A

Fear of judgement from loved ones, just pure support and unconditional love from animal.

55
Q

Are there similar mechanisms/ factors underlying HAI and HHI (Human-Human Interaction)?

A
  • Oxytocin in both HAI and HHI
  • Physical touch, eye contact -> releases oxytocin
56
Q

Beetz et al. (2012) propose that activation of the oxytocin system plays a key role in the health benefits of HAI.
Studies have found that…??

A

HAI leads to higher oxytocin output; effects of HAI are similar to oxytocin.

Oxytocin is released in both humans and animals in response to touch/ petting and mutual gaze.

  • Oxytocin, is also realised for the animal.
  • Only dogs (especially female), have increased oxytocin not cats :(
57
Q

How can HAI be beneficial for children and elderly?

A

Recent meta-analyses have suggested that HAI boosts learning and engagement in schools and improves health outcomes in older adults.

58
Q

What are some limitations with HAI?

A
  • Lack of standardized measures of variables (e.g., pet bonding).
  • Reliance on small sample sizes, short-term outcomes.
  • Degree of pet involvement & previous ownership not controlled.
  • Animals not typically well described.
59
Q

Robotic Therapy Pets?

A

Treatment with the PARO robot decreased stress and anxiety in the treatment group and resulted in reductions in the use of psychoactive medications and pain medications in elderly clients with dementia.

60
Q

Does viewing an aquarium has the same effects as other forms of HAI?

A
  • Lower blood pressure/heart rate from
    viewing an aquarium.
  • But it does not matter, if the aquarium is on a computer screen -> so oxytocin is probably not involved. Probably just visually pleasing.
61
Q

Stress and connection to nature?

A
  • More natural elements such as wood and plants in offices and hospitals rooms lower stress.
  • People rate rooms more aesthetically pleasing when there’s plants.
  • Exposure to birdsongs also reduces stress. People in neighbourhoods with more birds experience less stress.
62
Q

Health Benefits of Greenspace
Meta-analysis of 143 studies by Twohig-Bennett & Jones (2018)
(Reductions and decreased incidences of….?)

A

Significant reductions in…
* heart rate
* diastolic blood pressure
* salivary cortisol

Decreases in incidence of…
* Type 2 diabetes
* all-cause mortality
* cardiovascular mortality

63
Q

How can we explain greenspace’s positive effects on health? + The “old friends” hypothesis

A
  • Opportunities for physical activity and exercise.
  • Increased social interaction.
  • Exposure to sunlight & associated benefits.
  • Mitigation of harmful environmental exposure (noise, pollution).

The “old friends” hypothesis→Increased exposure to a range of micro- organisms which may be important for the development of the immune system and the regulation of inflammatory responses.
(Particularly influential for children)

64
Q

Mental Health Benefits of Greenspace?

A
  • Lower risk of mental illness
  • Lower rumination and reduced depression.

Recent meta-analyses have suggested a more significant impact on positive affect (happiness) and a small but significant impact on negative affect.

(People who live in cities also generally have better access to healthcare, so mental illness might be reported more.)

65
Q

Jiang et al. (2016) examined self-reported recovery from stress in a stress induction experiment as a function of tree exposure.

Following stress induction, participants watched 1 of 10 3-D videos of street scenes that varied in tree cover.

Results?

A

Found a positive, linear association (dose-response) between density of urban street trees and self-reported stress recovery, controlling for gender, age, and baseline stress.

66
Q

Exposure to blue spaces (aquatic environments) has been associated with…?

A
  • Psychological well-being and physical activity in a number of studies.
  • Blue space can be even more beneficial than green space.
67
Q

The Biophilia Hypothesis?

A
  • Humans have an innate desire to seek out connections with other life and living systems.
  • Human systems (including the brain) evolved in nature. The desire to connect is rooted in our genes and evolution.
  • Supported by evidence of health benefits of HAI and nature.
68
Q

Practicing meditation appears to…?

A
  • Alleviate stress, reduce blood pressure, and enhance immune function.
  • Actives the parasympathetic nervosystem, allows us to enter a more relaxed state.
  • Improvements to health both long-term and short-term.
69
Q

What is Mindfulness?

A

Mindfulness is the intentionally focused awareness of one’s immediate inner and outer experiences; commonly integrated into meditation (“mindfulness-based meditation”).

  • Moment-by-moment attention to thoughts, emotions, sensations, and surroundings.
  • Lack of judgment; simple observation.
    Combined successfully with CBT.
  • You do not have to be meditating to practice mindfulness
  • The benefits are quite noticeable even early on!
70
Q

Meta-analysis of mindfulness-based therapy; 209 studies enrolling 12,145 participants with a variety of disorders (esp. depression, anxiety, stress-related).

Results?

A
  • MBT is moderately effective in pre-post comparisons and in comparisons to wait-list control groups.
  • Also effective when compared to other treatments; but not significantly different from CBT or behavioural techniques.
71
Q

Meta-analysis of mindfulness-based stress reduction for healthy individuals; 29 studies enrolling 2,668 participants.

Results?

A
  • MBSR is moderately effective in reducing stress, depression, anxiety and distress and in improving quality of life.
  • More research needed to identify the most effective elements.
72
Q

Mindfulness based meditation effect on personality?

A

Less neurotic more openness. Wow!

73
Q

Shinrin-Yoku (Forest Bathing)?

A
  • A traditional Japanese practice of immersing oneself in nature.
  • Numerous potential health benefits of forest bathing and other forms of nature therapy.
  • Kind of mindfulness meditation taking in the nature.