Gender

Question 1

Sex

Answer 1

Biological status, either male or female which is determined by one pair of sex chromosomes (XX - female, XY - male)
These chromosomes then influence hormonal and anatomical differences.

Question 2

Gender

Answer 2

Psychological status, either masculine or feminine, includes all attitudes, roles and behaviours associated with the gender. These are heavily influenced by social norms and cultural expectations.

Question 3

Sex vs gender.

Answer 3

Sex is innate (nature)
Gender is at least partly due to environment (nurture)
Gender is a social construct, so is fluid and open to change.

Question 4

Sex-role stereotypes.

Answer 4

Set of shared expectations that people within a society or a culture hold about what is acceptable or usual behaviour for men and women.

These are a type of schema which come from experience, such as family, friends or media.

Include male and female stereotypes.

Question 5

Dangers of sex-role stereotypes.

Answer 5

low self-esteem, cause limitations for people, discrimination.

Question 6

Androgyny

Answer 6

Someone who cannot clearly be identified as a man or a woman.

Refers to a personality type that is characterised by a balance of masculine and feminine traits, attitudes and behaviours.

Question 7

Bem and androgyny.

Answer 7

Suggested that high androgyny is associated with psychological well-being, this could be because it allows people to be successful in all different areas in life.

However, some researchers argued that people who have a greater proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted because these traits are more valued in Western society.

Question 8

Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)

Answer 8

Bem (1974)
First systematic attempt to measure androgyny.
Presents 60 traits, 20 fem, 20 masc and 20 andr. (these were chosen by asking 50 male and 50 female judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how much they represented ‘maleness’ and femaleness’)
Developed objectively with no bias, so increased validity.

Used a rating scale, 1-7, 1 being never true.
Ordinal scale is subjective, quantitive data is easy to analyse, but lacks insight,

Masculinity and femininity is treated as 2 dimensions.

Question 9

Strength of BSRI

Answer 9

Androgynous traits include - friendly, conscientious, happy. Shows that androgyny is good for mental health.

Follow up study, 561 makes and 356 females (from pilot sample) to recomplete BSRI and a month later, produced similar scores.
Evidence of external validity - consistency over time - due to test retest

Question 10

Limitations of BSRI

Answer 10

developed over 50 years ago: lack temporal validity, lacks population validity, developed in America (ethnocentric)
However, it appears to be valid across culture, used in Japan and china with good reliability and validity, when a few items were removed to improve cultural fit. Other study in Brazil with 65+ participants showed BSRI appears to be valid.

People must rate themselves: social desirability bias, complex, can be difficult to rate yourself.

Question 11

Chromosomes.

Answer 11

46 in humans, arranged in 23 pairs.
Ovum supplies X chromosome, sperm supplies X or Y, zygote formed.
Sex of a baby is determined an conception when the sperm and egg form a zygote.

Question 12

Hormones.

Answer 12

Chemical substances secreted by glands and carried in bloodstream.
Prenatally, these act upon brain development causing development of the reproductive organs.

Testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin.

Question 13

Testosterone.

Answer 13

Male hormone but is present in small quantities in women.
Associated with aggression and competitiveness.
When released in the womb this hormone causes the development of male sex organs.

Question 14

Oestrogen

Answer 14

Female hormone that governs the development of secondary sexual characteristics and menstruation from adolescence onwards.
Can cause women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability during their mentrual cycle, referred to as PMT (pre-menstrual tension). PMS when symptoms become a diagnosable disorder.
PMS have been used as a defence in cases of shoplifting and even murder.

Question 15

Oxytocin.

Answer 15

Women typically produce this in much larger amounts, particularly as a result of giving birth. Released in massive quantities during labour.
Stimulated lactation, reduces stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding.
Men have less, so fuelled stereotype that men are less interested in closeness in a relationship.

Question 16

Evidence for biology.

Answer 16

Large body of research for hormones supporting their role in gender development - study found that females with CAH (causing high male hormones) were often describes as ‘tomboys’ by their family and exhibit high levels of aggression. Shows that hormones are involved in gender.

Evidence for chromosomes - David Reimer, penis cut off after botched circumcision and doctors advised his parents to raise him as a girl, but he associated himself with masculinity. Shows chromosomes can determine gender, despite environment he felt he was a girl.
HOWEVER - case study = unable to generalise.

Question 17

Evidence against biology

Answer 17

Biologically reductionist - ignores other psychological explanations for gender development - cognitive (gender schema theory). Gender is more complex than biological influence alone.

Ignores role of social factors - one study found that gender roles around the world are a result of social norms, rather than biology. Individualistic cultures are more masculine and traditional traits are highly valued. Suggests social factors are more important.

Question 18

Atypical sex chromosome patterns.

Answer 18

Klinefelter’s syndrome (biologically male, have an extra X chromosome) - 1/600, poor language skills and reading ability, do not respond well to stress.
Reduced body hair, gynaecomastia, rounding of body contours.

Turner’s syndrome (biologically female, absence of X chromosome) - 1/5000, higher than average reading ability, socially immature.
Do not have a menstrual cycle, appearance of prepubescent girl.

Question 19

Strengths of research into atypical sex chromosomes.

Answer 19

Contribution to nature-nurture debate - by comparing people with the syndromes to see psychological and behavioural differences between the 2 groups (socially immature and do not respond well to stress). Differences have a biological basis, supporting nature approach.

Application to managing syndrome - earlier and more accurate diagnosis of the syndromes and application for treatments. Klinefelter’s = testosterone therapy (increase muscle strength, growth of body hair). Turner’s = growth hormones (given in childhood) or oestrogen replacement therapy (given at puberty to stimulate menstrual cycle). Study showed taht those who had been diagnosed with Klinefelter’s earlier had significant benefits in terms of managing their condition compare to those who were diagnosed in adulthood.

Question 20

Limitation of research into atypical sex chromosomes.

Answer 20

Sampling issue - one study found that many people with Klinefelter’s do not experience significant cognitive or psychological problems.
In general only those with the most severe symptoms are identified. Suggests that the typical picture of people with these syndromes may be exaggerated, distorting the picture of ‘typical symptoms’.

Question 21

Explanations for gender - psychodynamic theory.

Answer 21

Gender identity and role are acquired during the phallic stage.

UNCONSCIOUS

Boys enter the oedipus complex - the penis becomes the focus of pleasure and boy develops sexual feelings towards his mother. They see their father as a rival and experience castration anxiety if their father discovers the desire for his mother. To resolve the conflict, the boy gives up his love for his mother to identify with his father. They develop a strong identity with their father because fear of castration is strong. They adopt the ideas and beliefs of their father and develop a male identity, through identification they become more active and dominant.

Girls enter the electra complex - experience penis envy, they see their mother as a love rival between themselves and their father. They blame their mother for ‘castration’ and substitute penis envy for desire to have children, so identify with their mother. They develop a weaker identity than men because their fear is not as strong as the fear of castration. They adopt the attitudes and behaviours of their mother and develop a female identity, through identification they become quiet and submissive.

Question 22

Strengths of psychodynamic approach in explaining gender

Answer 22

Supporting research - (Freud’s explanation means that normal development for boys, depends on being raised in a conventional nuclear family), one study rated the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 based on interviews with families and themselves. Of those who were judged to be ‘gender disturbed’. 75% had neither a biological father or a substitute father living with them. Shows that being raised without a father may have a negative impact on gender identity.
HOWEVER, does not explain if the same results would occur for girls. Contradicting - 37 children growing up in non traditional families, in all cases but one children developed typical gender identities and role behaviours.

Question 23

Limitations for the psychodynamic approach in explaining gender.

Answer 23

Case study - Little Hans (phobia of horses. Freud suggested that his unconscious mind was using the horse to symbolise his wish against his father which brought back his castration anxiety) his mother routinely threatened him with castration (not the typical family environment that the theory is based on) his fear can be explained by classical conditioning rather than envy towards his father.

Inadequate account of women’s gender - Freud himself admitted that women were a mystery. he wrote a more extensive explanation about the oedipus complex compared to the electra. Making theories about development of gender without actually understanding women and girls.

Question 24

Cognitive explanations for gender

Answer 24

Kohlberg’s theory
Gender schema theory

Question 25

Kohlberg’s theory - background

Answer 25

Influenced by Piaget - focussed on stages on intellectual development.
Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)

Egocentricism - child’s tendency to only be able to see the world from their own point of view (decreases with age). 3 mountain task - only children at age 6-7 were able to understand that when the doll moves it would not have the same view of the mountain.

Development of conservation - ability to realise that quantity remains constant even when the appearance of objects change. Conservation task - young children are unable to understand that the juice remains the same amount when poured into a thinner cup as it looks like it has more,

Question 26

Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 26

3 stages in the development of gender, thinking becomes are complex and their understanding becomes greater.

Stage 1 - gender identity
Stage 2 - gender stability
Stage 3 - gender constancy

Question 27

Stage 1 of gender development

Answer 27

Gender identity (2-3)
At 2, the child can correctly identify if they are a boy or a girl.
At 3, most children are able to identify other people as boys/men or girls/women.
Children do not view gender as fixed.

They understanding of gender does not stretch much beyond simple labelling.

Question 28

Stage 2 of gender development

Answer 28

Gender stability (4-5, younger age of pre-conventional stage)
At 4, children realise that they will always stay the same gender.

Cannot apply this logic to other people in other situations (egocentric)
Confused by external changes in appearance (conservation)

Question 29

Stage 3 of gender develeopment

Answer 29

Gender constancy (6-7+, older age of pre-conventional)
At around 6, children recognise that gender remains constant across time and situations.
No longer fooled by changes in outward appearance.

Children seek out gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate, they start an active search for evidence that confirms the concept of gender and gender stereotypes begins to emerge.
Developed conservation

Question 30

Strengths of Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 30

Studied children across cultures and found that children progress through the same stages - shows gender stages are universal, increasing validity.

Supporting research - story about a boy who liked to play with dolls, 4 year olds said it was fine, but 6 year olds thought it was wrong. Shows findings that would be suggested by Kohlberg’s theory, increasing validity.

Question 31

Limitations of Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 31

May be different degrees on gender constancy - initial degree causing children to understand the general importance of gender (age 6). A second degree which heightens children’s response to gender norms develops later.
Kohlberg’s explanation might be too simplistic to say that there is just 3 stages.

Criticised methodology - studies ask children to identify men and women based on clothes and hairstyles, in reality one researcher suggested that the best way to identify males and females is through physical differences, 40% of children ages 3-5 were able to demonstrate gender constancy if they were shown a naked photo, compared to when they saw the same child dressed. Alternative ways to study gender development that are more accurate.

Contradicting research - children as young as 4 reported feeling good when playing with gender appropriate toys and feeling bad about doing the opposite. Kolhberg suggested this would not happen until stage 3 (age 6-7+) not at stage 2 (age 4).

Question 32

What is a gender schema

Answer 32

A gender schema is an organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience. They guide a person’s understanding of their own gender and stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour in general.

Question 33

Gender schema theory

Answer 33

Once a child has established gender identity at around age 2-3. Actively begin to search the environment for information that encourages the development of gender schema.
Boys - blue, short hair, cars.
Girls - pink, dolls, dresses.
(Same as Kohlberg’s view)

Schemas are developed through interactions with other children and adults (agents of socialisation) and the media.
Male - physical, strong, aggressive.
Female - domestic, subservent.
(Contrasts Kohlberg - said that active search for evidence to confirm gender concepts only beings after they have progressed through all 3 stages)

As the child gets older the gender schema expands (exposed to further agents of socialisation), forms around stereotypes and provide a framework that determines behaviour as well as childs understanding of themselves.

By age 6, children have a fixed stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for their gender, making them more likely to misremember information that does not fit with their existing schema.

Question 34

Children’s understanding of gender schema

Answer 34

Better understanding of schema that is appropriate to their own gender (ingroup).
Helps to boost the child’s self esteem, pay more attention to information relevant to their own gender compared to the other gender (outgroup). Ignoring information that is not consistent with their ingroup schema, so they have a very strong effect on what children remember and how they perceive the world.

Around 8 they develop a schema for both genders.

Question 35

Strength of gender schema theory

Answer 35

Supporting evidence - children under the age of 6 were more likely to remember photographs of stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour (woman washing the dishes) compared to photographs of gender inappropriate behaviour (woman fixing a car) when tested a week later. Children tend to change the gender of the person carrying out the task to make it gender appropriate. Shows the theory has high internal validity.

Supporting research across cultures - traditional cultures that think that women should take a nurturing role and men should pursue a career, raise children who form schema which are consistent with this view. In societies with less rigid boundaries, children are more likely to acquire a gender fluid schema. Increases population validity.

Question 36

Limitations of gender schema theory

Answer 36

Some ideas are not completely accurate - research shows that gender identity occurs before the age that the theory suggests. Longitudinal study of 82 children, gathered data from twice weekly reports from parents and video analysis. On average, at 19 months, the children labelled themselves as a boy or a girl. Suggests children do have a gender identity before this, but cannot communicate it, lacks external validity.

Question 37

Comparing Kohlberg’s theory and GST

Answer 37

Kohlberg - egocentricism and development of conservation.
Active search begins at age 6-7.
3 stages in gender development

Same - cognitive development theory.
Agents of socialisation.
Actively search environment for information.

GST - Misremember/disregard information that does not fit with gender schema.
Ingroup/outgroup
Active search begins at 2-3.

Question 38

Psychological explanations for gender - social learning theory.

Answer 38

We copy what we see from models, dependant on if they associate themselves with them.

2 meanings of modelling - demonstration of behaviour that might be imitated by an observer (when an adult acts in a particular way around a child, they are modelling that behaviour - dad shows their son DIY)
Learning from the observers perspective (when a child copies the behaviours they have seen others do - a girl copies her mother doing makeup)

4 mediational processes

Question 39

SLT explaining gender - motivation

Answer 39

Reinforcement and punishment.

Differential reinforcement - way that boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender appropriate behaviour.
Can be direct or indirect.

Direct reinforcement - the child themselves is reinforced - displaying behaviour that is stereotypically gender appropriate, so will receive positive reinforcement causing the behaviour to be repeated.

Direct punishment - child themselves is being punished - engaging in behaviour that is not gender appropriate. Negative punishment = taking something away. Positive punishment = mocked/shouted at. Behaviour is stopped.

Indirect (vicarious) punishment/reinforcement - child notices the consequences of another person’s behaviour. Favourable consequences mean the behaviour is more likely to imitate the behaviour. Unfavourable consequences mean the child is less likely to imitate behaviour.

Question 40

Strengths of SLT in explaining gender development

Answer 40

Supporting research - 4-6 month old babies dressed as boys or girls, when dressed as boys they were given hammer shaped rattle and encouraged to explore, when the same babies were dressed as girls they were given dolls to play with and reinforced for being passive. Shows that people unconsciously reinforce gender stereotypes which could have an impact in gender development.

Focus on development of gender in both males and females - no gender bias.

Question 41

Limitations of SLT in explaining gender development

Answer 41

Soft environment deterministic - suggests that we have some control, as people can choose whether or not to imitate behaviour, but is mediated by their cognition.

Fails to explain why children in a non traditional family develop traditional gender identities. Cannot be explained by social learning theory.

Some aspects of gender roles are universal to all cultures - men are consistently found to me more aggressive, suggests that these traits are innate and caused by genetic influences that social learning theory does not account for.

Question 42

Influence of culture on gender roles

Answer 42

Tchambuli tribe - women are leaders rather than men, they are more dominant and are the primary food suppliers. In marriage, neither men or women have power, often men fear their wives.

Cross cultural research - valuable contribution to the nature-nurture debate.
If a particular gender role appears to be consistent across cultures, it shows support for nature because despite the environment people still have different traits.
If a behaviour appears to be culturally specific, this supports the nurture debate because difference experiences could explain behaviour.

Question 43

Cultural similarities (nature)

Answer 43

One study found that, in most societies, women are the ‘nuturers’ and men are the ‘breadwinners’

Another study tested 2800 students in 30 different countries, given 300 adjectives and found that men were seen as dominant and aggressive, whereas women were seen as dependent and nurturing.

Shows nature is responsible to gender stereotypes as the same results were found across both individualistic and collectivist cultures.

Question 44

Cultural differences (nurture)

Answer 44

Mead - Papua New Guinea - studies 3 tribes who lived totally independently but had a close geographical location.
Tchambuli - women are dominant (this would been seen as male behaviour in Western societies)
Mundugumor - both men and women are aggressive (Western stereotype of masculinity).
Arapesh - both men and women are cooperative and caring (Western stereotype of femininity)

Shows nature is responsible. behaviour is learnt and taught by ancestors, even though tribes are close together, they believe in different concepts

Question 45

Cross cultural research limitations

Answer 45

Ethnocentricism - use of own cultural group as a basis for judgement about other groups.

Important to ensure that any differences are real differences and not due to cultural bias, so research should be carried out by members of that culture.

Question 46

Media and gender roles

Answer 46

Explained by SLT, media provides models and provides information about what is considered acceptable.

Males are shown in a wider range of roles and often in higher status position than females.
Males are shown as dominant and independent
Females are shown as submissive, nuturing and family orientated.

Media plays a role in reinforcing the widespread social stereotypes concerning gender typical behaviour.

Question 47

Research for media and gender roles

Answer 47

2 year natural experiment in a community with no TV available before the study.
Children aged 6-11 were in one of 3 groups: notel (no TV, but being introduced), onetel (one TV channel), multitel (access to several channels).

Asked to rate appropriateness of certain behaviours.

Notel = not many gender stereotypical attitudes at the start or end of the study.
Onetel = Low gender stereotypical attitudes at the start of the study, but moderate at the end (some stereotypical ideas).
Multitel = Low stereotypes at the start and high gender stereotypical attitudes at the end.

Shows that TV adverts display gender stereotypes.

Question 48

Strength of research into the media and gender stereotypes

Answer 48

Supporting evidence - children without television have been shown to be less stereotyped in their gender role attitudes. Increases validity.

Shown to reduce stereotypes - stereotyping was reduced when shown TV adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles. Shows that media can change already existing stereotypes.

Question 49

Limitations of research into media and gender stereotypes

Answer 49

Research to show that there is alternative factors influencing gender roles - norms within the family have a bigger influence than the media. Media representation may confirm existing gender norms held by the family. Theory is reductionist and does not consider other influences that may cause stereotypes.

Cannot establish cause and effect between media influence and stereotypes - factors such as other socialising agents may have an influence. Children who are inflexible with gender stereotypes watch more TV because it confirms their schemas. Lacks internal validity.

Question 50

Atypical gender development

Answer 50

Gender dysphoria (DSM-5) - marked difference between the individuals expressed gender and the gender assigned to them.
Must continue for at least 6 months in children, the desire to be the other gender must be present and verbalised.
Causes clinically significant distress in important areas of functioning.

Gender dysphoria is manifested through: strong desires to be treated as the other gender, to be rid of ones sex characteristics, a strong conviction that one has feelings and reactions of the other gender.

People experiencing this need a diagnostic term because it protects their access to care and won’t be used against them in social or legal areas.

Question 51

Gender dysphoria and definitions of abnormality

Answer 51

Statistical infrequency - uncommon.

Deviation from social norms - breaking the social norms of society.

Failure to function adequately - prevents person from coping with day to day demands.

Deviation from ideal mental health - does not meet the criteria of being normal (resist stress)

Question 52

Biological explanations for atypical gender development - brain sex theory

Answer 52

Gender dysphoria has a basis in brain structure. Humans have dimorphic brain structures (physical differences in brains between males and females). Brain sex theory suggests that people with gender dysphoria have brains is more like that of the other gender they identify with.

Key area of interest - BST, larger in men, studies of transgender women have found the BST to be a typical size to a typical biologically female brain.

Hypothalamic area and white matter (deeper tissue) are also implicated.

Question 53

Strengths of brain sex theory

Answer 53

Post mortems have found that BST is female sized in transgender females.

Post mortem analysis of anterior hypothalamus on 42 subjects, volume of neurones in transgender females is more similar to biological females than men.

Question 54

Limitations of brain sex theory

Answer 54

Studied changes in transgender individuals brains using MRIs while taking hormone treatment. Scans showed size of BST changed significantly - could be effect of treatment not cause.

Analysed white matter of brains of male and female transgender individuals before treatment. Distribution corresponded to the gender individuals identified with rather than biological sex.

Question 55

Biological explanations for atypical gender development - genetics

Answer 55

Variation in genes leads to biological process that changes gender expression.
Genes that are responsible for androgen reception - people with gender dysphoria have variations in genes that are responsible for androgen reception, this change reduces the effect that testosterone has on the brain.

157 twin pairs (96 MZ) assessed for evidence of gender dysphoria - 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetic factors. MZ are both more likely to show atypical or both show typical gender development. DZ = more likely just one is affected.

Question 56

Strengths of genetics in explaining atypical gender development

Answer 56

Collected childhood gender identity from over 8000 twin pairs, longitudinal study, 70% of the variance in gender identify was due to genetic factors. Increases validity.

Compared 23 MZ twins to 21 DZ twins, where one of each pair were diagnosed with gender dysphoria. 9/23 were concordant in MZ, 0/21 in DZ.

Question 57

Limitations of genetics in explaining atypical gender development

Answer 57

Suggestion that people with gender dysphoria have variations to genes that are responsible for androgen reception cant explain gender dysphoria for those who are assigned female at birth

Question 58

Social explanations for atypical gender development - psychodynamic

Answer 58

Emphasises social relationships within the family as a cause for gender dysphoria.

Interview findings reported that biological males with gender dysphoria have overly close relationships with their mothers, suggesting stronger female identification.

Ovesey and Pearsons theory - gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth is caused by the child experiencing extreme separation before gender identity has been established. The child fantasised of a symbolic fusion with their mother to relieve the anxiety, removing the danger of separation. The consequence of this is that the child, in a very real psychological sense, becomes the mother, and adopting the female identity.

Question 59

Strength of psychodynamic theory in explaining gender development

Answer 59

Interviewed the mothers of 115 M to F children assessing levels of separation anxiety, it was found that those who met the full criteria for gender dysphoria were significantly more likely to experience separation anxiety.
HOWEVER, this does not apply to transgender men

Question 60

Limitations of psychodynamic theory in explaining gender development

Answer 60

Found gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth are more likely to be associated with the absence of the father rather than fear or separation from the mother.

Question 61

Social explanations for atypical gender development - dual pathway theory

Answer 61

In addition to the development of sex-stereotyped gender schema, people can also develop non-sex stereotyped gender schema from experiences and developing interests (personal pathway). If this schema overrides the original schema and becomes more dominant, this can lead to androgyny or gender dysphoria.

Question 62

Strengths of dual pathway theory

Answer 62

Tested the attitudinal pathway (stereotypical) giving 57 American children (mean age of 4.03) toys labelled boys and girls. Those with strongest sex-stereotyped gender schema were more interested in the toys that were labelled for their gender.

Tested personal pathway - 57 Americans (mean age 3.99) with the toys and found higher levels of personal interest in toys associated as for boys and girls.

Findings are predicted by the dual pathway theory.

Question 63

Limitations of the dual pathway theory in explaining atypical gender development

Answer 63

Theory is descriptive, not explanatory, very little explanation of why child may become interested in activities that are not consistent with their sex or how these result in non-sex stereotyped schema. It means to describe the effect of gender dysphoria rather than fully explain it cause.