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B > 24-25 > Flashcards

24-25 Flashcards

1
Q

are protein molecules embedded in the
membranes of cells

A

Receptors

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2
Q

ligands, interact with receptors.

A

Chemical messengers

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3
Q

Chemical messengers

A

ligands

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4
Q

block receptors

A

Antagonists

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5
Q

carry and amplify the signals from the receptor to inside the cells

A

Secondary messengers

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6
Q

send chemical messengers across a short distance

A

Neurotransmitters

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7
Q

stimulate receptor

A

agonists

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8
Q

between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle or endocrine gland cell

A

synapse

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9
Q

Acetylcholine is

A

cholinergic

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10
Q

transmit their signals more slowly and over a longer distance, from the source of their secretion (endocrine gland), through the bloodstream, into target cells.

A

Hormones

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11
Q

source of Hormones secretion

A

endocrine gland

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12
Q

epinephrine and norepinephrine

A

adrenergic

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13
Q

Five kinds of chemical messengers

A

cholinergic, amino acid, adrenergic, peptidergic, and
steroid

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14
Q

progesterone is

A

steroid

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15
Q

glutamic acid is an

A

amino acid

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16
Q

enkephalins

A

peptidergic

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17
Q

Nerve transmission starts with the neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine packaged in

A

vesicles

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18
Q

vesicles

A

presynaptic end

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19
Q

Steroid hormones can act in three ways:

A

(1) They activate enzymes
(2) they affect the gene transcription of an enzyme or protein
(3) they change membrane permeability

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20
Q

Removal of amino acid messengers takes place by

A

reuptake

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21
Q

act through a secondary messenger

A

cyclic AMP

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22
Q

neurotransmitters are released, they cross the
membrane and the synapse and are adsorbed onto
receptor sites on the

A

postsynaptic

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23
Q

three principal types of molecules for communications

A

Receptors, Chemical messengers, Secondary messengers

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24
Q

the process that occurs after a ligand binds to its receptor

A

Signal transduction

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25
Q

bind to receptors on the target cell membrane and use secondary messengers to exert their influence

A

Peptides and proteins

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26
Q

protein molecules on the surface of cells embedded
in the membrane.

A

Receptors

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27
Q

How Do Steroid Hormones Act as Messengers?

A

Steroids penetrate the cell membrane, and their receptors are found in the cytoplasm

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28
Q

also called ligands

A

Chemical messengers

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29
Q

A chemical messenger between a neuron and another target cell: neuron, muscle cell, or cell of a gland

A

Neurotransmitter

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30
Q

A chemical messenger released by an endocrine gland
into the bloodstream and transported there to reach its target cell

A

Hormone

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31
Q

same steroids can also act as neurotransmitters

A

when synthesized in neurons

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32
Q

carry the message from the receptor to the inside of the cell and amplify the message

A

Secondary messengers

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33
Q

drug blocks the receptor and prevents its stimulation

A

antagonist

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34
Q

drug competes with the natural messenger for the receptor site

A

agonist

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35
Q

If the chemical signal travels, say, from axon to dendrite, we call the nerve ends on the axon the

A

presynaptic

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36
Q

Receptors are located on

A

postsynaptic

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37
Q

Parathyroid

A

Increases blood calcium, Excretion of phosphate by kidney

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38
Q

diverse compounds secreted by specific tissues

A

Hormones

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39
Q

Causes ovulation

A

Luteinizing hormone

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40
Q

Pancreatic islets Beta cells

A

Insulin

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41
Q

Thyroid Hormone

A

Thyroxine

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42
Q

Thyroxine

A

Growth, maturation, and metabolic rate

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43
Q

Alpha cells

A

Glucagon

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44
Q

Hypoglycemic factor

A

Insulin

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45
Q

Formation of testosterone and progesterone in interstitial cells

A

Interstitial cell stimulating hormone

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46
Q

Triiodothyronine

A

Metamorphosis

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47
Q

Liver glycogenolysis

A

Glucagon

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48
Q

Epinephrine, Norepinephrine

A

Liver and muscle glycogenolysis

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49
Q

Growth of mammary gland

A

Prolactin

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50
Q

Lactation, Corpus luteum function

A

Mammotropin

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51
Q

Carbohydrate metabolism

A

Cortisol

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52
Q

Mineral metabolism

A

Aldosterone

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53
Q

Androgenic activity

A

Adrenal androgens

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54
Q

Hydrolysis of blood precursor protein to yield angiotensin

A

Renin

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55
Q

Stimulates uterine contraction and milk ejection

A

Oxytocin

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56
Q

Contraction of blood vessels

A

Vasopressin

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57
Q

Kidney reabsorption of water

A

Vasopressin

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58
Q

Estrous cycle

A

Estradiol

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59
Q

Male sex characteristics

A

Testosterone

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60
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Androgens

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61
Q

Kidney

A

Renin

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62
Q

Female sex characteristics

A

Progesterone

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63
Q

Posterior pituitary

A

Vasopressin, Oxytocin

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64
Q

Adrenal cortex

A

Cortisol, Aldosterone, Adrenal androgens

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65
Q

Adrenal medulla

A

Epinephrine, Norepinephrine

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66
Q

Anterior pituitary

A

Luteinizing hormone, Prolactin,Mammotropin

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67
Q

Testes

A

Testosterone, Androgens

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68
Q

Ovaries

A

Estradiol, Progesterone

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69
Q

A protein molecule that carries small molecules, such
as glucose or glutamic acid, across a membrane

A

Transporter

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70
Q

A cascade of events through which the signal of a neurotransmitter or hormone delivered to its receptor is carried inside the target cell and amplified into many signals that can cause protein modifications, enzyme activation, and the opening of membrane channels

A

Signal transduction

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71
Q

neurons are stimulated the Ca2+ concentration is

A

0.5 uM

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72
Q

Calcium ion signaling controls these functions via two mechanisms

A

(1) increased concentration (forming sparks and puffs)
(2) duration of the signals

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73
Q

increase in calcium ion concentration may take the form

A

sparks or puffs

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74
Q

first brain peptides isolated were the

A

enkephalins.

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75
Q

affects the hypothalamus, a region that integrates the body’s hormonal and nervous systems

A

neuropeptide Y

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76
Q

involved in transmission of pain signals

A

substance P

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77
Q

most universal yet most versatile signaling agent is the

A

cation Ca2+

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78
Q

caused by the uncontrolled release of
acetylcholine

A

facial tics

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79
Q

control our heart beats, our movements through the action of skeletal muscles, and, through the
release of neurotransmitters in our neurons, learning and memory.

A

Calcium ions

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80
Q

source of calcium ions may be internal

A

calcium released from the stores of the endoplasmic reticulum

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81
Q

nerve gases in the military arsenal exert their lethal effect by binding to

A

acetylcholinesterase

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82
Q

source of calcium ions may be external

A

calcium influx caused by the electric signal of nerve transmission

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83
Q

calcium wave in the human egg lasts

A

s 1 to 35 min after fertilization

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84
Q

used in the treatment of involuntary muscle spasms

A

botulin toxin

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85
Q

capable of detoxifying nerve gases

A

Pseudomonas diminuta

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86
Q

botulism

A

Clostridium botulinum

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87
Q

must be used in tandem—and very quickly—after exposure to nerve gases

A

alkaloid atropine and pralidoxime chloride

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88
Q

a deadly type of food poisoning When meat or fish is improperly cooked or preserved,

A

botulism

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89
Q

when applied locally to the facial muscles, stops the uncontrolled contractions and relieves the facial distortions

A

botulin toxin

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90
Q

symptoms of severe memory loss and other senile behavior

A

Alzheimer’s disease

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91
Q

effect of NO is also evident in strokes

A

blocked artery restricts the blood flow to certain parts of the brain

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92
Q

two pathological hallmarks in the brain

A

buildupof protein deposits known as b-amyloid plaques outside the nerve
cells
(2) neurofibrillar tangles composed of tau proteins

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93
Q

spastic motion of the eyelids as well as rhythmic tremors of the hands and other parts of the body

A

Parkinson’s disease

94
Q

reverses the symptoms of their disease Parkinson’s disease

A

L-dopa

95
Q

Patients with Alzheimer’s disease have significantly diminished

A

acetylcholine transferase activity

96
Q

tangles have been found in the
brains of patients with Alzheimer’s disease

A

Neurofibrillar tangles

97
Q

acts as an intercellular messenger between the endothelial cells surrounding the blood vessels and the smooth muscles encompassing these cell

A

NO

98
Q

half-life of NO

A

4–6 s

99
Q

way to increase dopamine concentration is to

A

prevent its metabolic elimination

100
Q

increases the level of dopamine by preventing its

A

oxidation by MAOs

101
Q

real cure for Parkinson’s disease

A

transplanting human embryonic dopamine neurons

102
Q

discovery of NO and its role in blood pressure control, three pharmacologist

A

Robert Furchgott, Louis Ignarro, and Ferid Murad

103
Q

synthesized in the cells when arginine is converted to citrulline

A

NO

104
Q

a nonsteroidal compound that binds to the estradiol receptors situated on the nuclei of cells

A

Tamoxife

105
Q

non–insulin-dependent

A

In Type II

106
Q

results from low insulin secretion

A

Diabetes

107
Q

can reduce the recurrence of breast cancer in women who have been successfully treated for the disease

A

tamoxifen

108
Q

it reduces the risk of breast cancer, tamoxifen
increases the risk of both

A

uterine cancer and clot formation

109
Q

2-deoxy-D-ribose; it is D-ribose

A

DNA RNA

110
Q

In DNA, the heterocyclic amine bases are

A

adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).

111
Q

sections of DNA that encode specific RNA
molecules.

A

Genes

112
Q

is based on genes located in chromosomes

A

Heredity

113
Q

are composed of sugars, phosphates,
and organic bases

A

Nucleic acids

114
Q

Two kinds of nucleic acids exist

A

ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

115
Q

In RNA,

A

they are A, G, C, and uracil (U).

116
Q

giant molecules with backbones made of alternating units of sugar and phosphate. The bases are side chains joined by b-N-glycosidic
bonds to the sugar units

A

Nucleic acids

117
Q

made of two strands that form a double helix

A

DNA

118
Q

six kinds of RNA

A

messenger RNA (mRNA),
transfer RNA (tRNA)
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
small nuclear RNA (snRNA)
micro RNA (miRNA)
small interfering RNA (siRNA).

119
Q

each A on one strand is hydrogen-bonded to a T on the other strand, and each G is hydrogen-bonded to a C. No other pairs fit.

A

Complementary pairing

120
Q

DNA is coiled around basic protein molecules called

A

histones.

121
Q

carries, in the sequence of its bases, all the information necessary to maintain life

A

DNA molecule

122
Q

DNA in higher organisms contains sequences, called

A

introns

123
Q

involved in all protein synthesis

A

mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA

124
Q

RNA with catalytic activity is called a

A

ribozyme.

125
Q

a segment of a DNA molecule that carries the sequence of bases that directs the synthesis of one particular protein or RNA molecule

A

gene

126
Q

sequences that do code for proteins are called

A

exons.

127
Q

relax the higher structures

A

Topoisomerases

128
Q

seals the nicks and the Okazaki
fragments

A

DNA ligase

129
Q

The leading strand is synthesized continuously by

A

DNA polymerase

130
Q

An important DNA repair mechanism is

A

BER, or single base excision repair

131
Q

technique can make millions of copies with high precision in a
few hours

A

polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

132
Q

synthesized discontinuously
as Okazaki fragments

A

lagging strand

133
Q

The unit of heredity

A

Gene

134
Q

a DNA segment that codes for one protein or one type of RNA

A

Gene

135
Q

building blocks (monomers) of nucleic acid
chains are

A

nucleotides

136
Q

Purines and pyrimidines,
which are components of
nucleotides, DNA, and RNA

A

Bases

137
Q

A compound
composed of ribose or deoxyribose
and a base

A

Nucleoside

138
Q

nucleoside made of guanine and ribose is called

A

guanosine

139
Q

third component of nucleic acids is

A

phosphoric acid

140
Q

A nucleoside bonded
to one, two, or three phosphate
groups

A

Nucleotide

141
Q

Base Sugar

A

nucleoside

142
Q

Base Sugar Phosphate

A

nucleotide

143
Q

chain of nucleotides

A

nucleic acid

143
Q

major difference between cancer cells and most normal cells is

A

cancer cells divide much more rapidly

143
Q

used intermittently to give the body time to
recover from the side effects of the drug

A

Chemotherapy

144
Q

chemotherapy with fluorouracil or other
anticancer drugs also weakens the body

A

because it interferes with
DNA synthesis in normal cells.

144
Q

nucleoside deoxythymidine, which is synthesized in the cell by

A

methylation of the uracil base

144
Q

One component of DNA is

A

nucleoside deoxythymidine

144
Q

Analysis of the base composition of DNA molecules from many different species was done by

A

Erwin Chargaff

144
Q

administered to a cancer patient as part of
chemotherapy

A

fluorouracil

144
Q

The arrangement
in which two strands of DNA are
coiled around each other in a
screw-like fashion

A

Double helix

145
Q

provides structural stability for the DNA and RNA molecule

A

backbone

145
Q

DNA and RNA chains has two ends

A

a 3’-OH end and a 5’-OH end

145
Q

obtained by Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958) and Maurice Wilkins

A

x-ray diffraction photographs

145
Q

backbone in DNA consists of

A

alternating deoxyribose and phosphate groups

145
Q

Nucleic acids can be divided into two parts

A
  • the backbone of the molecule
  • the bases that are the side-chain groups.
145
Q

established the three-dimensional structure of DNA

A

1953, James Watson (1928– ) and Francis Crick (1916–2004)

145
Q

(A and T) and (G and C) are present in equimolar
quantities

A

Chargaff rule

146
Q

complementary base pairs

A

bases so paired form hydrogen bonds
with each other, two for A—T and three for G–C

146
Q

arise because the two strands
are not equally spaced around the helix

A

major groove and a minor groove

146
Q

Chargaff’s rule

A

For each adenine on one chain, a thymine is aligned
opposite it on the other chain; each guanine on one chain has a cytosine aligned with it on the other chain

146
Q

The DNA complexed
with histone and nonhistone
proteins that exists in eukaryotic
cells between cell divisions

A

Chromatin

146
Q

are produced in the
process called transcription

A

Messenger RNA (mRNA))

146
Q

A coil wound in the form
of a helix

A

Solenoid

147
Q

The RNA that carries genetic
information from DNA to the
ribosome and acts as a template
for protein synthesis

A

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

148
Q

DNA replication yields two
DNA molecules identical to the
original one, ensuring transmission
of genetic information to daughter
cells with exceptional fidelity

A

Replication

148
Q

The sequence of bases in DNA is
recorded as a sequence of
complementary bases in a singlestranded mRNA molecule.

A

Transcription

148
Q

Three-base codons on the mRNA
corresponding to specific amino acids
direct the sequence of building a
protein. These codons are recognized
by tRNAs (transfer RNAs) carrying the
appropriate amino acids. Ribosomes
are the “machinery” for protein
synthesis

A

Translation

149
Q

Transfer RNA (tRNA) Containing from ____ nucleotides per chain

A

73 to 93

149
Q

The RNA that transports amino acids to the site of protein synthesis in ribosomes

A

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

149
Q

The RNA complexed with proteins in
ribosomes

A

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA

149
Q

are L shaped, but they are conventionally represented as a cloverleaf

A

Transfer RNA (tRNA

150
Q

Small spherical bodies
in the cell made of protein and
RNA; the site of protein synthesis

A

Ribosome

151
Q

The removal of an
internal RNA segment and the
joining of the remaining ends of
the RNA molecule

A

Splicing

151
Q

help with the processing of the initial mRNA transcribed from DNA into
a mature form that is ready for export out of the nucleus

A

small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles, snRNPs

151
Q

small, about 100 to 200 nucleotides long,
but it is neither a tRNA molecule nor a small subunit of rRNA

A

Small Nuclear RNA (snRNA)

151
Q

RNA-based enzymes, for which Thomas Cech received the Nobel Prize. Splicing will
be discussed further in Chapter 26

A

ribozymes

151
Q

only 22 nucleotides long but are important in the timing of an organism’s development. They bind to sections of mRNA and prevent their translation.

A

Micro RNA (miRNA)

152
Q

have an enormous control over gene
expression

A

Small Interfering RNA (siRNA

153
Q

used to eliminate expression of an undesirable gene, such as one that causes uncontrolled cell growth or one that
came from a virus

A

Small Interfering RNA (siRNA

154
Q

Transports amino acids to site of protein
synthesis

A

Transfer RNA

155
Q

Combines with proteins to form ribosomes, the site of protein synthesis

A

Ribosomal RNA

156
Q

Directs amino acid sequence of proteins

A

Messenger RNA

157
Q

Processes initial mRNA to its mature form
in eukaryotes

A

Small nuclear RNA

158
Q

Affects gene expression; important in
growth and development

A

Micro RNA

159
Q

designation, S,

A

refers to Sredberg

160
Q

Affects gene expression; used by scientists to knock out a gene being studied

A

Small interfering RNA

161
Q

a unit of
relative size determined when
molecules are separated by
centrifugation.

A

refers to Sredberg

162
Q

Nucleotide sequence in
DNA or mRNA that codes for
a protein

A

Exon

163
Q

A nucleotide sequence in
DNA or mRNA that does not code
for a protein

A

Intron

164
Q

are DNA molecules in which short nucleotide sequences are
repeated hundreds or thousands of times.

A

Satellites

164
Q

Replication begins at a point in the DNA called an

A

origin of replication

165
Q

The process by which
copies of DNA are made during
cell division

A

Replication

165
Q

chromosomes carries out two functions

A

(1) It reproduces itself and
(2) it supplies the information necessary to make all the RNA and proteins in the body, including enzymes

166
Q

are specialized structures at the ends of chromosomes

A

Telomeres

166
Q

divide in
a cyclic fashion throughout the life of the organism

A

somatic cells

166
Q

telomeres In vertebrates

A

TTAGGG sequences

167
Q

s lose about 50 to 200 nucleotides from their telomeres at each cell division

A

somatic cells

168
Q

acts as a clock by which the cells count the number of times they have
divided

A

telomere shortening

168
Q

possess an
enzyme, telomerase, that can extend the shortened telomeres by
synthesizing new chromosomal end

A

somatic cells

168
Q

the enzyme that links the fragments, does not
work at the end of linear DNA

A

DNA polymerase

169
Q

a ribonucleoprotein; that is, it is made of RNA and protein

A

Telomerase

169
Q

point on the DNA where
replication is proceeding is called the

A

replication fork

169
Q

5 3 direction

A

leading strand

170
Q

3 5 direction

A

lagging strand

171
Q

each daughter molecule has one parental strand (conserved) and one newly synthesized one.

A

semiconservative

172
Q

Unwinds the DNA double helix

A

Helicase

173
Q

Synthesizes short oligonucleotides (primers)

A

Primase

174
Q

Joins the assembled nucleotides

A

DNA polymerase

174
Q

Allows the leading strand to be threaded through

A

Clamp protein

175
Q

Joins Okazaki fragments in the lagging strand

A

Ligase

176
Q

base-pair with adenine

A

uracil and thymine

177
Q

compare the structures of uracil and
thymine, the only difference is

A

the presence of a methyl group at
C-5 of thymine

178
Q

required to methylate a molecule

A

carbon sources and energy

179
Q

DNA developed with a base that does the same thing as uracil, but

A

that requires more energy to produce

180
Q

helps guarantee replication fidelity

A

thymine

181
Q

One of the most common spontaneous mutations of bases is the

A

natural deamination of cytosine

182
Q

an unnatural base in DNA

A

uracil

183
Q

complete DNA sequence of an organism is called

A

genome

184
Q

wrote that some individuals developed
hemolytic anemia when eating fava beans, while others thrived
on it.

A

Pythagoras

185
Q

the study of how genetic variation influences individual responses to a given drug or class of drugs

A

Pharmacogenomics

186
Q

gene of a member of the
cytochrome P-450 enzyme group.

A

CYP2D6

187
Q

presence makes the individual a poor metabolizer (PM)

A

mutation, in which a guanine becomes an adenine in the
CYP2D6 gene

188
Q

associated with very fast, ultra-extensive metabolism (UEM)

A

mutation, in which an adenine base is
deleted on the CYP2D6 gene

189
Q

CYP2D6, the gene of a member of the
cytochrome P-450 enzyme group. This enzyme detoxifies drugs by
adding an OH group, making them more water-soluble

A

extensive metabolism (EM

190
Q

allow a rapidly growing organism, like bacteria, to replicate DNA for us

A

cloning

191
Q

Millions of copies of selected DNA fragments can also be
made within a few hours with high precision by a technique called

A

polymerase chain reaction (PCR

192
Q

polymerase chain reaction (PCR

A

Kary B. Mullis

193
Q

can be used if the sequence of a gene to be copied is
known, or at least a sequence bordering the desired DNA is known

A

PCR techniques

194
Q

The process in
which two strands of nucleic acids
or segments of nucleic acid strands
form a double stranded structure
through hydrogen bonding of
complementary base pairs

A

Hybridization

B (15 decks)

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