3.1 - Causes of Russian Revolution

Question 1

19th Century Russia – Demography

Answer 1

• 8000km from East to West; 3200km from North to South
• Ethnically diverse – 170 ethnicities
  o Russians = only 44% of population
  o Different cultures, languages and movements for political independent
• Population rapidly expanding-40 million in 1815 1995 million in 1890 165 million in 1914
• Increase of people living in towns

Question 2

19th Century Russia – Social Structure

Answer 2

• Nobility – 1% of population but owned 25% of land
• Middle class – small (approx 0.5% in 1897) but growing
• Urban workers – new class and small (about 7%) with very poor working and living conditions
• Peasants approx 80% of population
  o Given some land after emancipation in 1861 but very restricted by the mur they lived in we got poor illiterate and widespread disease
• Kulaks – rich peasants who hired labour, rented and bought land

Question 3

19th Century Russia – Political System

Answer 3

• Tsar was autocratic and had supreme power
• All other bodies of government were administrative or advisory
  o Imperial Council – provided expert opinion
  o Committee of Ministers – advisory role, ran departments and appointed by Tsar
  o Russia = only European country without democratic/representative government by 20th century

Question 4

19th Century Russia – Russian Politics

Answer 4

• Tsar Alexander II
  o Reformer
  o Nicknamed ‘Tsar Liberator’
  o Created representation full landlords through zemstvo’s in brackets local government
  o Emancipated the peasants
  o However, banned trade unions and kept a massive police force
• Tsar Alexander III
  o Disempowered the zemstvo
  o Policy of Russification – forced minorities to learn Russian, tried to convert populations to Russian Orthodox

Question 5

19th Century Russia – Pillars of Control

Answer 5

• Bureaucracy:
  o 14 levels
  o Put policies into practice
• Police:
  o Okhrana – Tsar’s secret police
  o Maintained law and order, but only 1 policeman per 3850 peasants, so Tsar relied on Cossacks
• Orthodox Church:
  o Legitimised Tsar’s power
  o Used to reinforce conservative values and stifle receptiveness to revolutionary ideas and movements
• Army:
  o Conscription used as a punishment
  o Severe discipline and grim conditions
  o 1.5 million men = 45% of government spending
  o High ranks reserved for aristocracy

Question 6

19th Century Russia – Agricultural Situation

Answer 6

• Post peasant emancipation, landlords would not pay labourers and peasants could not afford to own land  ¼ of previously cultivated land fell into disuse
• Peasants owned small land holdings (less than 10 acres)
• Led to inefficient farms (half of other nations per acre)
• Growing population  pressure on food resources

Question 7

19th Century Russia – Industrial Situation

Answer 7

• Industrialisation pursued after 1870s
• Russia behind on all industrial measures:
  o Coal production less than 5% of that of Britain
  o –> 25% of coal imported
  o Lack of effective banking system
  o Less railway track

Question 8

Nicholas II

Answer 8

• Came to power in 1894
• Committed to preservation of autocracy
  o Believed democracy would collapse Russian empire
• Heavily influenced by Russification – a severely enforced policy of restricting the influence of non-Russian national minorities, by emphasising superiority of Russian culture
  o Impact of Russification – greater opposition, disunity in Russia and emergence of revolutionary groups
• Coronation –> crowd crush and >1300 killed but Tsar attended party with French later that night –> diminished reputation

Question 9

Liberal Ideas

Answer 9

• Includes nobles, middle class and students
• Two main political parties: Octobrists and Kadets
• Wanted reforms to system rather than revolution
  o Agreed on establishing a constitution and parliament
• However, Tsar’s response against Liberal groups increased anger
  o Tsar weakened Zemstvo through censorship, arresting leaders and reducing budgets
  o Removed freedoms from universities, arrested leaders and slaughter of the students where 13 killed, hundreds injured and 1500 arrested
• Significance:
  o Calls for constitutional monarchy and universal suffrage became important
  o Discontent led to February Revolution

Question 10

Liberal Group: Octobrists

Answer 10

• Moderate Liberals loyal to Tsar, often drawn from commercial, industrial and landowning interests
• Believed in maintaining Russian Empire but also desired constitutional monarchy
• Frequently voiced criticism of Tsar and eventually withdrew support in 1917

Question 11

Liberal Group: Kadets

Answer 11

• Largest Liberal group
• Included middle classes
• Demands:
  o All Russian Constituent Assembly – with power to make and amend Constitution
  o Full equality
  o Abolition of censorship
  o Abolition of redemption payments – payments made by serfs to government after emancipation
  o Trade unions and right to strike
  o Universal education

Question 12

Marxism

Answer 12

• Believe that economic forces and the class struggle shape society
• Believes that the central conflict exists between the proletariat and bourgeoisie
  o Believes that the exploitation of the proletariat will create revolutionary consciousness and lead to workers overthrowing the bourgeoisie
• Aims:
  o Establish communist society that is classless and with property and wealth shared
• Marxism appealed to young intellectuals and those that believed reform was not possible
  o Marxism offered a way forward for Russia that seemed rational and scientific

Question 13

Marxism-Leninism

Answer 13

• Lenin wanted to accelerate the process of the revolution by making the proletariat aware of their exploitation
• Lenin also clarified how the socialist transition would work and what the communist utopia would in fact look like
• Elements of Leninist Theory:
  o Vanguard Party – to become a guiding force to overthrow the bourgeoisie by creating a democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and then transferring power
  o Dictatorship of the Proletariat – with elected soviets and representatives of factory workers and trade unions
  o Nationalised industry and a foreign trade monopoly
  o National self determination
  o Socialist culture – to educate workers and change their perception of society

Question 14

Socialist Group: Mensheviks

Answer 14

• Formed after the split of the Social Democratic Party in 1903
• Advocated for a mass organisation with membership open to all and decisions made by internal votes
• Believed Russia was not ready for a socialist revolution as the bourgeoisie stage had to occur first
  o Committed to a strategy of alliance with other groups and championed improvements to working conditions and wages (economism)

Question 15

Socialist Group: Bolsheviks

Answer 15

• Formed after the split of the Social Democratic Party in 1903
• Advocated for a tight-knit exclusive organisation of professional revolutionaries
• Believed the bourgeoisie and proletarian stage of revolution can occur together (telescoped)
• Against cooperation with other parties
• Argued that imperialism was the highest stage of capitalism so Russia was ripe for revolution
• Dismissed economism

Question 16

Socialist Group: Socialist Revolutionaries

Answer 16

• Populist movement that wanted to end capitalism
• However, did not want to implement communism either
• Advocated for ‘revolutionary socialism’ and pledged to redistribute land
• Appealed to workers and valued peasants as a key aspect of their support base
• Internally split between anarchists and communists –> incoherent party

Question 17

Social Democrats

Answer 17

• Founded in 1898
• Banned in Russia and 2 main members in exile –> limited influence
• Lenin joined in 1900
  o Role as editor of party newspaper allowed him to voice his opinions
• 2nd Party Congress (1903) – Lenin made an issue over membership of party
  o Plekhanov & Martov – broad based party
  o Lenin – tight knit, exclusive party of ‘professional revolutionaries’
  o Led to a series of votes occurring but result was unclear –> party splits in two

Question 18

Causes of 1905 Revolution:
Discontent Amongst Peasantry

Answer 18

• Caused by famine, lack of work, rising rents and increases to grain tax
• Peasant Revolt (1902-3) – led to destruction of properties and targeted nobility
• Years of the Red Cockerel (1903-4) – involved seizure of land by peasants → anger amongst landlords and pressure on Tsar to act
  → shortages of grain exacerbated as peasants not paying tax on land
• Government responds by conducting and investigation into causes of anger, which concludes that no rural areas were prosperous and all were in a state of decline
• However, the government did not implement reforms

Question 19

Causes of 1905 Revolution:
Discontent Amongst Workers

Answer 19

• Caused by poor working conditions:
  o Working for more than 11 hours a day
  o Excessive fines for being late or absent
  o Lowest paid workers in Europe
  o Trade unions and strikes illegal
• Exacerbated by recession in early 1900s
• Belief that reforms were insufficient
• Increased number of strikes (522 met with violence by 1902)

Question 20

Causes of 1905 Revolution:
Discontent Amongst Educated Classes

Answer 20

• Mostly radical students → anti government sentiment
• Government response of expulsion, exile, forced military service and reforms to the education system to increase censorship → exacerbated anger
• National Zemstvo Congress (Nov 1904) = first national assembly in Russian history and made calls for a constitution
• Moscow City Duma (Nov 1904) = demanded establishment of national legislature, and freedom of religion and press
• Nicholas response – manifesto promising broadened powers for Zemstvo, insurance for industrial workers and abolition of censorship
  o However, refused to implement representative national legislature

Question 21

Causes of 1905 Revolution:
Russo-Japanese War

Answer 21

• Russia looked to expand into Manchuria and Korea
  o Wanted to compensate for decline in Europe
  o Wanted to gain an ice free port
  o Wanted to distract population from domestic problems
  o However, Japan also had interest in these regions
• Russia gained 25 year lease on Liaodong Peninsula, Manchuria – including access to Port Arthur, a warm water port with access to Pacific
• Russia also continued to build up military strength in Manchuria
• Russia did not realise the advancements to Japanese military so believed a war against them would be an easy victory
• Japan tries to reduce tensions by proposing well defined spheres of influence, with Russia to hold Manchuria and Japan to hold Korea
  o However, Russia was not interested in a diplomatic solution
  o Instead, Russia wanted a short, decisive war to create national pride and unity
• Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) ensured Britain would not support Russia on case of war → increase Japanese confidence
• Beginning of war – Japan launch surprise attack on Port Arthur in 1904
  o Russia initially advantaged with x3 population and x5 military of Japan
  o However, Russia was severely caught off guard with a lack of artillery and resources in Manchuria to respond
  o Failure of Balkan fleet – 10 months late and fired on Britain causing blockade of Suez Canal
• Result: decisive Japanese victory
• Russia lost due to:
  o Commanders not understanding enemy or terrain
  o Long distances for supplies to travel
  o Poor strategy
• Impacts:
  o Treaty of Portsmouth (Aug 1905) → Russia remove military from Manchuria and lost its lease of Liaodong Peninsula
  o Humiliating defeat → anger, revolutionary sentiment and criticism of government → strikes (120k on strike in Jan 1905), peasant revolts, student demonstrations and attacks by revolutionary terrorists
  o Growing support for liberal and revolutionary movements
  o Shortages, rising prices (eg 35% increase in price of bread from 1904-5) and falling wages of 25%
  o Lack of domestic military capability to respond to domestic threats
  o Radicalisation of soldiers

Question 22

Father Gapon’s Petition

Answer 22

• Petition designed to appeal directly to Tsar and highlight workers’ grievances, including:
  o Freedom of speech, press, association and religion
  o Universal education
  o Equality of the law
  o Separation of church and state
  o Abolition of indirect taxes
  o Abolition of redemption payments
  o Eight hour working day and regulation of overtime work
  o Freedom of labour
  o Wage regulation

Question 23

Bloody Sunday (9th Jan 1905)

Answer 23

• 150k protesters assembled peacefully and marched to Winter Palace
• Soldiers began firing on protesters when they did not obey demand to disperse
• Approx 200 killed and 800 wounded; however, reports at the time stated 4600 killed –> influence opinion
• Tsar not present at winter palace at the time so did not order troops to fire; however, as he had absolute authority, he was ultimately seen as responsible

Question 24

Impacts of Bloody Sunday

Answer 24

• Faith of working class in Tsar shattered
  o Lost reputation as ‘little father’
• Interior Minister, Mirskii, was dismissed Jan 18th
• Workers’ response:
  o Wave of fury spread across Russia
  o 400k strikers in St Petersburg alone (end of Jan 1905)
  –> Industrial action was taking place in every major town and city –> ‘festival of mobilisation’
  o Revolutionaries increase influence
  o Founding of St Petersburg Soviet (13th Oct 1905) = platform for workers to advocate and challenged authority of Tsar
• Peasants’ response:
  o Resistance initially mild – such as not paying taxes
  o However, continued to grow, including seizure of crops and livestock, and burning of manor houses
  –> Tsar ordered armed response on 2700 occasions
  –> However, lack of troops due to Russo-Japanese War combined with unwillingness of peasants to fire on their own people and a lack of power of local government –> unable to effectively respond
  o Peasant Union formed (Oct 1905) and created political demands - refused to pay taxes or provide troops to army until demands are met
• Military response:
  o Poor conditions and war weariness from Russo Japanese War –> mutinies
  o For example, the Potemkin mutiny occurred after sailors were served rotten meat, led to 7/18 officers being killed
  o Significant challenge to Tsar’s control and prevented them from quelling revolution
• Liberals’ response:
  o Formation of Union of Unions to combine liberals with industrial workers
  o Maintained commitment to universal suffrage and representative government
• Revolutionaries’ response:
  o Involvement was generally limited – workers and peasants often apathetic and hostile to revolutionaries
  o Terror wing called for attacks against landlords

Question 25

October Manifesto - Background

Answer 25

• Nicholas facing largest opposition ever
• Two options:
  o Authoritarian response; however, government lacked resources to enforce it and did not want a repeat of Bloody Sunday
  o Political reforms; however, Nicholas ideologically opposed to reform as it would break his coronation oath
• Witte believed reform that was necessary to bring peace and order
• Nicholas reluctant to make reforms – “terrible decision”

Question 26

October Manifesto - Reforms

Answer 26

• Civil freedoms – speech, assembly, association and conscience
• Elections to State Duma with ‘universal’ suffrage
• Nicholas to lose autocratic lawmaking powers as all laws needed to be approved by Duma

Question 27

October Manifesto - Impacts

Answer 27

• Manifesto did not reference a constitution
• However, reforms were broadly accepted
• Short term: opposition divided, revolutionary movements undermined and army kept on side
• Offered some hope to peasants, especially land redistribution
• Tax reforms –> redemption payments halved and eventually cancelled –> less land seizures and rural unrest
• Workers were largely satisfied by reforms and remained fearful of economic hardship if they lost their jobs
• Revolutionaries and the Soviets were not satisfied by reforms as they viewed it as a threat against their campaign
  o Tsar quickly crushed remnants of workers’ movements in a wave of repression

Question 28

Split of Liberal Groups

Answer 28

• Liberals split into:
  o Octobrists – who accepted reforms made by October Manifesto
  o Kadets – who supported reforms but hoped for further reforms, especially the development of a constitution
• Both groups were committed to preparing for upcoming Duma elections

Question 29

Significance of 1905 Revolution

Answer 29

• Tsarist government avoided a revolution
• Nicholas forced to reform through October Manifesto
  o Undermined Tsar’s autocratic power
• Revolutionary leaders disappointed
• Liberal movements increased political influence and move away from extreme change
• Highlighted disorganisation and disunity
• Important lessons learned in propaganda and agitation learned
• New institutions developed – eg Duma and Soviets
• Described as a ‘dress rehearsal’ for 1917 by Lenin
• Crisis of modernisation not addressed
• Awakened people’s expectations for change

Question 30

Limitations of Duma

Answer 30

• Electoral system not fully representative:
  o Only landowners of >200 hectares could vote directly
  o Only men over 25 could vote
  o Women and soldiers unable to vote
  o Peasants only had an indirect vote
  o Construction workers and casual labourers could not vote
• State Council – appointed 50% by Tsar
  o Nicholas made the Council the upper house of parliament
  o This restricted role of Duma as members would agree with Tsar on most issues
• Nicholas believed reforms were illegitimate and unnecessary

Question 31

Fundamental Laws

Answer 31

• Proclaimed that Tsar had supreme power
  o All laws required his approval
  o Tsar appointed ministers, and they were only accountable to him
  o Tsar retained complete control over foreign affairs, military affairs and declaration of states of emergency

Question 32

First Duma

Answer 32

• Seat distribution:
  o Kadets = 37%
  o Trudoviks = 20%
  o Peasants not affiliated with any party = 38%
• Kadets hoped for land reform, changes to military funding, and establishment of Constitution
• Only 2 laws passed – ban on capital punishment and famine relief
• Duma dissolved after only 73 days –> angered Kadets

Question 33

Second Duma

Answer 33

• Involvement of social democrats and socialist revolutionaries –> more radical
• Duma heavily critical of proposed land reform and military administration
• Accusations that SDs were plotting to overthrow Tsar –> dissolution of Duma
• 20 bills approved and 3 bills enforced, out of 287 submitted

Question 34

Third Duma

Answer 34

• Opened because:
  o Reforms to electoral system made voting more restricted
  o Russia was trying to increase foreign influence, so needed to demonstrate democratic values
• Octobrists became largest party
• Composed of “responsible and statesmanlike people”
• 2571 bills passed, including social reforms, workers compensation, universal education and budget
• Lasted full 5 years

Question 35

Stolypin

Answer 35

• Committed monarchist but significant reformer
• Became PM in August 1906
• Believed that suppression of revolutionary movements needed to occur before reform → Martial law declared August 1906
  o Loss of civil freedoms
  o 2193 executed for ‘terrorist’ or revolutionary activities between 1906-08
  o Increased surveillance of universities
  o Thus, this contradicted October Manifesto pledges

Question 36

Stolypin’s Reforms

Answer 36

• Aimed to create class of self sufficient and prosperous peasants, Kulaks → more likely to obey government and less likely to join revolutionary movements
  o Especially important given size of peasant class and high revolutionary potential
• Needed to address rural crisis of riots and lack of food to modernise Russia and support military
• Agrarian Reform Act issued by executive order November 1906
• Reforms included:
  o Abolition of redemption payments
  o Royal and Government land being made available for purchase → 3m accepted offer to relocate to Siberia, but many returned
  o Peasants permitted to leave mir (village commune) → 2m farmed independently (1913) = 15% of pop; however, 50% still remained in mir
  o Peasants permitted to combine land
  o Insurance against sickness, old age and injury
  o Proportional taxation
  o Compulsory primary education → number of primary schools doubled (1906-13)
  o Night and underground labour banned for children and women
  o Working day shortened to 8 hours (but this was not always adhered to)
• Effectiveness limited:
  o Focus on most productive peasants → only 10% of population benefitted
  o Only had 5 years to reform
  o Peasants were resistant to changes

Question 37

Lena Goldfields Massacre

Answer 37

• 12th April 1912
• Workers at Lena Goldfields complained over poor conditions, including:
  o 16 hour days
  o Cost cutting measures → lower wages
  o Served rotten horse meat
• Workers demanded higher pay, 8 hour days, end of fines and a cap to food prices, but these were rejected
• 6000 miners went on strike, government intervened → 500 shot and 250 killed
  o This was likened to Bloody Sunday
• Government response → 3m workers staged 9000 strikes between 1912-14
  o 2400 of these strikes had political demands (1914), increase from just 24 (1911)
  o St Petersburg General Strike (Jul 1914)

Question 38

Fourth Duma

Answer 38

• November 1912 – August 1914
• Plagued by growing tension and more protests as promises weren’t delivered upon
• Rise in revolutionary extremism → wave of assassinations of government officials
• Death of Stolypin → left significant vacancy that Tsar couldn’t replace
• Relationship between Duma and Tsar deteriorated, to the point where Octobrists were no longer satisfied with Tsar → less effective

Question 39

Impact of Declaration of War

Answer 39

• Outpouring of Russian nationalism and expression of loyalty of Tsar, demonstrated by:
  o Reduction in number of strikes from 3493 (Jan-Jul 1914) to 41 (Aug-Dec 1914)
  o Revolutionaries now viewed by Russians as traitors
  o Socialists began to support war effort
  o 95% of conscripts reported for duty
  o Fourth Duma suspended itself, pledging support to Tsar
• However, Nicholas mistakenly believed that this support continued throughout the war
• Russian advantages going into war:
  o Largest grain exporter
  o Large population

Question 40

Preparations for War

Answer 40

• Great Military Program – 5 year program initiated in 1912, but had made little progress by 1914 due to inept administration
• Russia was significantly under resourced in lead up to war:
  o Only 4.6m rifles for 6.5m troops → needed to produce 100k/month, but only produced 42k/month
  o Artillery rationed to 3 rounds/day
  o Shortage of 1b cartridges
  o Equipment not suitable for Russian winter conditions or trench warfare
• Leadership of military = inexperienced as based on loyalty to Tsar

Question 41

Military Campaigns During WWI

Answer 41

• Success – Battle of Lemberg
  o Russia defeated Austrian armed forces
  o Austria lost 1/3 of their troops (=400k) while Russia only lost 225k
• Failure – Battle of Tannenberg
  o Russia suffered 70k casualties, lost 100k troops and 350 pieces of heavy artillery in just 5 days
  o Germans only suffered 15k casualties
• Failure – Battle of Masurian Lakes
  o Russia lost 100k troops (60k killed, 40k captured) in 4 days
  o Germany lost 10k
• 1915 – 1m Russian troops killed → Great Retreat (Jul – Sep 1915)
• Mid 1915 – 4m Russian soldiers dead, wounded or captured
  o Significantly higher than other nations
  o Only 40 of 330 officers in one division still remaining
• Russian soldiers were poorly trained, with just 6 weeks of training and most of it without access to weapons
• ¾ of new soldiers did not have a weapon

Question 42

Impact of War Failures

Answer 42

• Loss of Russian territory – 23m Russians living under German occupation → national humiliation and criticism of Tsarist government
• Loss of morale – growing number of desertions, growth in fear/anger, and revolutionary ideals becoming more appealing

Question 43

Economic Impact of War

Answer 43

• Shortages of goods due to prioritisation of war effort → declining living standards → increase in revolutionary tension
• Railways = unable to cope with demand due to poor administration and small network scale → difficulty distributing food
  o 1916 – Petrograd and Moscow only receiving 1/3 of food and fuel supply
  o Calorie intake for average unskilled worker decreased 25%
  o Infant mortality doubled
  o 1/3 of bakeries and 2/3 of butchers closed in Petrograd
• Inflation – increased significantly due to need to cover cost of war effort → printing of more money
  o Real wages decreased 65%
  o 1917 Rouble could only buy 30% of what it could in 1913
• Ban on production and sale of vodka → tax revenue decreased 28% → exacerbated budgetary pressures
• Agriculture
  o Bulk of army comprised of peasants → shortages of labour in agriculture → decreased agricultural output
  o Requisitioning of horses → decreased agricultural output
  o Government set unreasonably high quotas → peasants began to sow less grain and increased support of socialist revolutionaries in rural areas
• Wealth disparity – inflation → wealth of elite increased dramatically → social unrest

Question 44

Political Impact of War War One

Answer 44

• Union of Zemstvos and Union of Towns
  o Led by Lvov (Kadet)
  o Offered to assist government with transport of supplies and care for wounded
  o However, Tsar rejected offer
• War Industries Commission:
  o Comprised of progressive Moscow based industrialists
  o Chaired by Guchov (Octobrist)
  o Angered as most war contracts provided to Petrograd businesses
  o Appealed to government to create a more competitive/efficient/productive economy
  o Tsar rejected offer
• Progressive Bloc
  o Alliance of Kadets and Octobrists = 236/422 of Duma deputies → strong opposition toward Tsar
  o Aimed to protect Tsar by calling for administrative reforms, including dismissal of incompetent minsters and creation of ‘government of public confidence’ → more effective government
  o Nicholas vehemently rejected proposal and sacked ministers who supported it → deterioration of government and Duma relations
• Ultimately, Tsar missed critical opportunities to improve performance → viewed Tsar as completely unwilling to reform and being out of touch → further decline in support and support for alternatives

Question 45

Nicholas as Commander in Chief

Answer 45

• Described as the most disastrous political decision he ever made
• Nicholas lacked charisma, had no military experience and was not popular
• Left running of country to Tsarina → increased influence of Rasputin

Question 46

Ministerial Leapfrog

Answer 46

• 1915-17
• Dismissal of government ministers became increasingly common
• Changes included:
  o 4 different PMs, Ministers of Education and Ministers of Justice
  o 3 different Ministers of Transport, Ministers of Foreign Affairs and War Ministers
• Most of the new candidates were incompetent, did not understand their role and exercised limited influence – for example, Proptopopov (Interior Minister Sep. 1916) had candid conversations with statues and dressed as a policeman despite never being one
• Stürmer (Interior Minister Jan 1916) had a passion for all things German → decreased credibility of government
• Rasputin often accepted bribes from individuals to be granted ministerial positions

Question 47

Reasons for Frustration at Tsarina

Answer 47

• German heritage → viewed as a traitor and alien
• Accepted Rasputin’s advice unconditionally → poor administrative decisions
• Failed to develop positive public relations

Question 48

How Rasputin Discredited Tsarist Regime

Answer 48

• Rumour of intimate relations → became widely believed by public → undermined confidence, credibility and legitimacy, thus affecting Tsar’s reputation
• Rasputin pushed away traditional supporters of Tsar from his inner circle
• Accepting of bribes → reduced credibility

Question 49

Causes of February Revolution

Answer 49

• 3 waves of strikes between 1915-17
  o First caused by dismissal of Duma and defeat in Galicia
  o Second caused by economic strikes at Putilov Steelworks
  o Third caused by 12th anniversary of Bloody Sunday, and continued food shortages
  o Nicholas does not respond
• 1917 – Liberals began to suggest replacing Tsar
• Bolsheviks had planned mass demonstrations for April 1917 → Bolsheviks played no part in February Revolution
• 1916/17 winter was one of the coldest ever → food and fuel supplies critically low, and private rail travel banned

Question 50

Key Events of February Revolution

Answer 50

• 18 February – Putilov Steelworks workers go on strike over pay and conditions → 40k workers protesting
• 23 February – women march from factories to commemorate International Women’s Day → 90k on street
• 24 February – protestors demand end to war and autocratic rule; clashes with police
• 25 February – office workers and teachers join strikes; Cossacks ordered to suppress movement but do not fire as they share solidarity with protesters
• 26 February – mutinies occur; Nicholas dismisses Duma
• 27 February – 400k protesters, general strike paralyses Petrograd; Provisional Committee formed by Kerensky, Rodzianko and Miliukov
• 28 February – widespread surrender of police and officials; Nicholas unable to reach Petrograd due to closure of railway
• 1 March – Provisional Government formed; agreement with Petrograd Soviet to create dual authority
• 2 March – Nicholas abdicates
• 3 March – Provisional Government formally recognised by USA and as Nicholas’ heir, Mikhail, refuses to take the throne due to security concerns

Question 51

Beginning of Provisional Government

Answer 51

• Lvov appointed Prime Minister because:
  o He had experience leading the union of towns
  o He had no formal affiliation with any political party
• Appointments made by Miliukov and Lvov
• Provisional government limited because:
  o Assumed power in a power vacuum
  o Was not elected and had no popular mandate
  o Believed they would only govern until a Constituent Assembly was formed → left many reforms for them to complete in the future
• Provisional Government made a series of reforms:
  o Recognition of trade unions
  o 8 hour working day for industrial workers
  o Capital punishment and Okhrana abolished
  o Freedom of speech, assembly and press established
  o However, PG did not make any reforms to industry, agriculture, the war effort or inflation → did not meet expectations of the public

Question 52

Dual Authority

Answer 52

• Refers to sharing of power between Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet
• Soviet Order #1 – Petrograd garrison only obligated to follow the directives of the PG when they do not conflict with the orders of the Soviet
  o This was a direct challenge to power of PG
  o Led to a split in power between military officers and soldiers

Question 53

Lenin’s Return to Russia

Answer 53

• First leading Bolsheviks to return were Stalin and Kamenev → provided cautious support to PG → angered Lenin
• Lenin was stuck in Zurich and unable to cross German territory
• Germans formulated plan to secretly escort Lenin and 31 other Bolsheviks back to Russia → aim to cause political instability

Question 54

April Theses

Answer 54

• 4th April 1917
• Expected that Lenin would speak about need to unite Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
• However, he instead spoke about:
  o Denunciation of Provisional government due to capitalist nature and ongoing support for ‘imperialistic’ WWI → urge Bolsheviks to not support it and instead criticise it
  o Need for a second revolution for the workers to take control, as part of the Soviet
  o Nationalisation of all land
  o Abolition of police, army and bureaucracy
  o Increased propaganda and introduction of clear slogans
• Became a radical manifesto that appealed to workers and soldiers
• By end of April, the theses had broad support in the Bolshevik party
• Led to Bolsheviks becoming more recognisable

Question 55

Provisional Government’s War Aims

Answer 55

• 14th March – Petrograd Soviet called for end to war but without concessions → forced PG to declare its aims
• Disagreement existed in PG:
  o Lvov and Kerensky believed that peace needed to be made
  o Guchkov and Miliukov believed that the war should continue until Russia was victorious
• Final declaration aligned with Soviet’s position

Question 56

Miliukov’s Note

Answer 56

• However, Miliukov continued to oppose this position so produced a note to accompany the declaration outlining the need for a decisive victory
• This lead to widespread fury amongst workers and soldiers → protests of 25k with calls to end war and for Guchkov and Miliukov to resign
• Miliukov’s note played into Lenin’s argument

Question 57

April Crisis

Answer 57

• Protests about Miliukov’s note → gave validity to Lenin’s ideas
• Lvov forced to ask for support by Soviet → 3 day ban on demonstrations by Soviet
• Outcome – PG survived but demonstrated its’ fundamental lack of power and lost support from the public

Question 58

First Coalition Government

Answer 58

• Guchkov and Miliukov reluctantly resign in late April/early May
• Lvov aimed to restore support and legitimacy to PG → urged Soviet leaders to join
• 5th May – new coalition formed, including 6 socialists, who hoped for greater influence and populist policies
• Divide formed between Liberals and Socialists → difficulty creating change → Mensheviks and SRs involved in PG had reputations tarnished as they were blamed for lack of action
• Meanwhile, Bolsheviks did not participate in PG so did not lose their reputation = played into Lenin’s argument

Question 59

June Offensive

Answer 59

• 1st Coalition began preparing for a renewed military offensive
• Kerensky was concerned about low morale and effects of a German victory on revolution, and pressure from allies → announce a new offence
• Kerensky’s speeches labelled him the ‘Supreme Persuader in Chief’ and created an enthusiastic response from soldiers
• Brusilov, known for preparedness and aggression, made Commander in Chief on 23rd May
• Offensive initially a success with 30km gained
• However, Russia suffered 40k losses, including the most elite and loyal troops → offensive stalled by July 2
• 6th July – counter attack from Germany → 400k soldiers retreat, spike in desertions and Germans had advanced 230km
• Brusilov blamed defeat on Bolshevik influence
• Consequences:
  o Morale completely eroded
  o Soviet War aim discredited
  o Dual Authority put under great strain
  o Confidence in Government plummeted → increased support for Bolsheviks

Question 60

July Days

Answer 60

• First Machine Gun regiment advised of deployment to front line → Petrograd Soviet meeting on 2nd July → passing of anti government resolutions and calls for demonstration
• 3rd July – armed workers and soldiers march toward city → street fighting between protesters and right wing groups → 400 deaths
• 4th July – hundreds of thousands protest, and 2500 sailors from Kronstadt are praised by Lenin but are urged to maintain restraint
• 50k gather at Tauride palace but Lenin does not act – concerned about whether he would have Soviet support
• Soviet had no desire to take power, despite being urged by workers and soldiers → frustration at Soviet
• Chernov (Min. for Agriculture) sent to explain to crowd how situation was being managed → kidnapped by protesters and told to ‘take power’
• However, by the end of 4th July the protests had fizzled out due to lack of leadership
• Pereverzev (Min. for Justice) blamed situation on Bolsheviks, suggested Bolsheviks were supported by Germans and raided offices of Pravda → soldiers return to Tauride Palace to protect PG and Soviet
• Kernsky ordered seizure of Bolshevik HQ, arrest of Bolshevik leaders → 800 arrested, Lenin flees to Finland, and party members attacked and removed from factories by workers

Question 61

Second Coalition Government

Answer 61

• 8th July – PM Lvov resigns as he is disillusioned with internal fighting and is concerned about social tensions → Kerensky becomes new PM
• Kerensky immediately tries to form new government → enormous pressure on him:
  o Left wing want an end to the war and resolution to economic issues
  o Right wind want a continuation to the war until victory
• 18th July – Kerensky believed strong leadership would lead to success → Kornilov appointed Commander in Chief
  o Believer in strong discipline
  o Hated the Soviet and Bolsheviks
  o Did not have an understanding of the political system in Russia
• 25th July – Second Coalition Government takes office
  o All ministers asked to act as individuals, not representatives of parties, to increase unity and stability; however, this did not work
• Kornilov provided a list of demands:
  o Restoration of death penalty to reduce desertions and mutinies
  o Ban soldier committees and political meetings on the front
  o Factories working for defence should be subject to military discipline and have a set of quotas established
  o Ban on strikes with strikers to receive death penalty
• Kornilov’s demands → concerned Kerensky about his appointment

Question 62

Moscow State Conference

Answer 62

• Kerensky convened a meeting of 2500 delegates from diverse background to try to create unity and support for new government
  o Did not include any representatives from Bolsheviks
• Conference revealed deep divisions in Russian politics
• Kornilov arrives on day 2 and emphasised need for discipline and order
• Conference ultimately made no progress whatsoever

Question 63

Kornilov Affair

Answer 63

• 19th August – Kornilov orders his Cossack units to move closer to Petrograd
  o Argues this was to protect the Northern Front
  o However, this was really to disperse the Soviet
• Former Minister for the Church, Lvov, acted as a mediator between Kerensky and Kornilov
  o Lvov interfered with messages
  o Told Kerensky that Kornilov was demanding dictatorial powers and Kerensky’s resignation
  o Told Kornilov that Kerensky was encouraging him to establish a military dictatorship
  o Neither of these messages were true → worsened situation
• Kerensky impersonates Lvov in a telegram asking him to confirm his real intentions
• 27th August – Kerensky telegrams Kornilov advising him he is dismissed → Kornilov believing he has been betrayed or Kerensky was held hostage by the Soviet → Kornilov dismissed order and commands his troops to advance on Petrograd to ‘save Russia’

Question 64

Significance of Kornilov Affair

Answer 64

• PG forced to plead for support from Soviet – Soviet demands for release of Bolsheviks
• Bolsheviks organise workers’ militias, known as Red Guards
• 30th August – Kornilov and closest officers arrested
• Increased problems for Kerensky:
  o Divisions between soldiers and officers grew
  o Military discipline fell
  o Unemployment growing → crime increased
  o Food supply crisis – caused by bad harvest and ongoing land seizures
  o Popularity fell
• Reputation of Mensheviks and SRs ruined due to involvement in Second Coalition
• Bolshevik popularity grew dramatically as they were able to portray themselves as protectors of the revolution

Question 65

Meeting of Bolsheviks (10 October)

Answer 65

• Decision made that Bolsheviks should launch an armed insurrection
• Trotsky believes that they should wait until Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, and Lenin agrees
• Date of insurrection not set
• Kamenev and Zinoviev continue to disagree with plan → publicly stating objections → Lenin becomes furious

Question 66

Military Revolutionary Committee

Answer 66

• Formed by Bolsheviks on 16th October
• Took control of Petrograd garrison - aimed to protect Soviet from an armed coup/counterrevolutionaries and to protect Petrograd from German offensive
• Trotsky was a key member and exerted large influence
• Provisional Government lost control of Petrograd as had no military power
• Allows Bolsheviks to launch an insurrection

Question 67

Events Prior to
October Revolution

Answer 67

• 23rd October:
  o Kerensky orders destruction of bridges linking the city to working class suburbs
  o Kerensky orders the shutdown of 2 Bolshevik newspapers
• 24th October:
  o Red Guards retake control of checkpoints and printing presses
  o Milrevkom has taken control of strategic buildings
  o Soldiers loyal to Provisional Government surrender
• 25th October:
  o Bolsheviks have control over public services – post, electricity, banks, railways and telegraphs
  o Lenin comes out of hiding
  o Bolsheviks initiate plans to attack winter palace

Question 68

Assault on Winter Palace (25 October)

Answer 68

• Kronstadt sailors arrive 3 hours late → force Bolsheviks to delay assault
• Plan to use cannons fails as it is learned the planned cannon is only a historical artefact
• Aurora late – arrives at 9:40pm
• Provisional Government soldiers waiting for assault leave positions to have dinner → weakest soldiers in charge (140 volunteers, 40 disabled soldiers, trainees and bicycle officers)
• 40k Bolsheviks able to enter through unarmed doors
• Takes 4.5 hours to find remaining PG ministers – Kerensky escaped before this time

Question 69

Congress of Soviets (25 October)

Answer 69

• Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets begins on 25th October at 10:40pm, despite Bolshevik attempts to delay
• Martov (Menshevik) calls for a socialist coalition government
  o Lenin rejects this as it would mean Bolsheviks would have limited influence
• Complete rejection of this call → Mensheviks and SRs stage a walkout → no opposition to Bolsheviks

Question 70

Conditions Prior to July Days

Answer 70

• Deteriorating economic conditions and discontent with PG → increased number of strikes and revolutionary ideas prevalent
• Returning soldiers had gained more radical views → increased number of land seizures
• Greater exposure to revolutionary ideals through rural Soviets
• Government urged peasants to wait for Constituent Assembly
• PG also losing power to nationalist groups hoping for greater autonomy
  o Concessions to Rada (Ukraine) → all Kadets resign from coalition on July 2nd

Question 71

Consequences of July Days

Answer 71

• Bolsheviks did not have power to drive through with a revolutionary movement
• Government still maintained military support
• Demonstrated that a popular movement with strong leadership could lead to collapse of Government

Question 72

Impact of Social Democrats Split

Answer 72

• Allowed Lenin to have tight control over his own party and implement his own ideas –> increased power and influence
• Allowed Lenin to quickly assert his will over the party when he returns to Russia
• No need to compromise –> greater stability and integrity
• Lenin able to spread more radical views

Question 73

Witte’s Economic Reforms:
Policies

Answer 73

• Witte sought to drive economy through industrialisation
  o Believed Russia needed state capitalism to direct and control economy
  Policies – described as the Great Spurt:
  o Increased investment by negotiating loans from abroad – increased from 2.5m Roubles (1893) to 13m (1898) to 2.2b (1913)
  o Increased taxes and interest rates
  o Limited imports by increasing tariffs
  o Investment into railways – amount of track tripled
  o Encouragement of technical education – 8 technical schools (1894) to >100 (1904); literacy rate increased from 20% (1890) to 38% (1914)
  Investment into heavy industry from 60m Roubles (1890) to 430m (1900)

Question 74

Witte’s Economic Reforms:
Impacts

Answer 74

Impacts:
o GDP growth of 97% between 1898 to 1913 (compared to 40% in Britain, 84% in Germany)
o Coal production from 3m tons (1880) to 34m tons (1916)
o Oil production from 0.5m tons (1880) to 10m tons (1916)
o Grain production from 34m tons (1880) to 64m tons (1916)

Question 75

Witte’s Economic Reforms:
Limitations

Answer 75

Problems with reforms:
o 30% of investment from abroad  Russia dependent on foreign debt
o Taxes for peasants increased 5% to 15%
o No focus on developing agriculture
o Rapid increases in urban populations  overcrowding and lack of resources
o Poor working conditions – strikes and unions banned; no health or safety regulations; 12-16hr working days  increased number of strikes (19 in 1893 to 522 in 1902)
o 1900 recession  increased unemployment
o Inflation at 40% between 1908 and 1914

Question 76

Father Gapon

Answer 76

• Gapon was a prominent member of St Petersburg workers’ community
• Considered a ‘renegade priest’ who supported poor
• Established Assembly of Factory Workers (1904)
  o 6000 members by end of 1904
  o Aimed to support local workers and industrial reform
• Gapon wanted to change the view that government was helpless in times of hardship