5. The making of modern malaria

Question 1

Why did Europeans attempt to colonise the interior of Africa? 7

Answer 1

1. In 19thc, europeans sought colonisation of interiors of africa
2. abolition of slave trade in 1807 and slavery in 1832 meant slave traders had to look for alternative legitimate items of trade eg. ivory, cotton and minerals
3. missionaries involved in abolition sought to preach gospel to interiors of africa - david livingstone and others believed gospel would truly liberate africa
4. wanted creation of alternative economies
5. thomas fowell buston involved with the 1839 establishment of the society for the Extinction of the Slave Trade Society and for the Civilisation of Africa
6. argued to liberate Africa, you must colonise it
7. mcGregor laird and several liverpool merchants who were involved with slave trade started african inland company in 1832

Question 2

Describe the colonisation of Africa. 7

Answer 2

1. There was a scramble for africa - large parts colonised over 60-70 years
   2, 1880 - region north of river congo became a french protectorate
2. 1881 - tunisia became french protectorate, transvaal regained independence
3. 1882 - britain occupied egypt (france pulled out of joint occupation), italy begins colonising eritrea
4. 1884 - british and french somaliland created
5. 1884 - german south west afrtica, cameroon, german east africa (kenya) and togo created, rio de oro claimed by spain
6. europeans entered interior by gold coast and many ended up with malaria

Question 3

How did malaria impact colonisation? 3

Answer 3

1. 1833 - mcgregor Laird’s expedition to niger valley, 37/48 europeans dead
2. Malaria blocked development - europeans couldn’t colonise until problem solved
3. area will remain poor and suffer until malaria eradicated

Question 4

What was one of the sypposed causes of malaria? 3

Answer 4

1. europeans believed that heat, fever laden swamps, swarming insects and miles of trackless jungles of africa caused malaria
2. drawn from miasma
3. didn’t know about the malaria parasite and mosquitoes

Question 5

What was the foundation of tropical medicine? 5

Answer 5

1. medical specialisation developed by end of 19thc
2. supported idea that certain diseases were endemic to the tropics
3. specialised knowledge required for reopical condition
4. not a universal problem like germ theory
5. malarial main focus as biggest killer. focus shift from cholera

Question 6

What was the ecology of germ theory? 6

Answer 6

1. max von pettenkofer in 1818-1901. german hygienist
2. X - specific pathogen, found in soil/water
3. Tropics provided good conditions for x to become contagious
4. Y - local and seasonal preconditions that allowed pathogen to transform into a contagious miasma
5. Z - individual susceptibility to disease
6. 1889 - charles louis alphonse laveran, franch physician, discovered parasite causing malaria while working in algeria

Question 7

Who was patrick manson, 1844-1922? 6

Answer 7

1. Graduated in medicine in abderdeen in 1865
2. appointedd to imperial customs service in amoy, china, in 1866
3. worked across world
   4, worked on filaria similar to malaria
4. in 1894, discovered insect vector of filaria parasite is mosquito
5. founded london school of tropical medicine, 1899, known as father of tropical medicine

Question 8

Who was ronald ross, 1857-1932? 6

Answer 8

1. discovered anopheles mosquito was the vector that transmitted malaria parasite in 1899
2. discovered lifecycle of the parasite plasmodium
3. founded the liverpool school of tropical medicine in 1900
4. received nobel prize in 1902
5. manson was unhappy about not receiving one as he suggested malaria may be transmitted in same way as parasite of filaria
6. leads to marsh clearing, germ theory returns to the field from lab

Question 9

What was the relationship between tropical medicine and imperialism? 3

Answer 9

1. Renewed belief that colonization of interior of africa was possbile
2. many schools of tropical medicine established between 1900 and 1906
3. all did surveys - studied regions for understanding of methods of eradication

Question 10

How was malaria related to african development? 6

Answer 10

1. several malaria and typanosomiasis field surveys were undertaken by experts in asia and africa from 1890s
2. undertaken at same time as field imperialism expanded
3. modern agriculture and plantations were being expanded
4. mines dug and roads and railways built in africa
5. both followed same logic of bringing european modernity and development to the dark continent
6. tropical medicine, economic and cultural diversity were seen as gifts to africa

Question 11

Describe the historiography of tropical medicine? 6

Answer 11

1. historians have used the ecological premises of tropical medicine to return tropical diseases to their economic and ecological context
2. landscape changes caused by colonialists actually caused spread of diseases eg. by creating raised land leading to marshes
3. previously, there were only small pockets of disease
4. challenged imperial presumption that european civilisation and economic impetus rid africa and asia of tropical disease
5. shown that ‘malaria blocks development’ isn’t true - even though it continues to shape health policies
6. removed 19-20th century ideas of tropics being disease ridden

Question 12

What did John Ford say about colonial history and trypanosomiasis in 1971? 5

Answer 12

1. first to connect ecological history with trypanosomiasis
2. research explored relationship between vectors, hosts and parasites in diverse parts of eastern africa, rhodesia/zimbabwe and nigeria
3. suggested british imperial policies transformed ecology of large parts of africa, leading to epidemic
4. argued pre-colonial africa successfully contained small populations with disease
5. no man’s lands disturbed by farming, encouraging disease spread

Question 13

What did helge kjekshus say about colonialism in tanzania in 1977? 4

Answer 13

1. argued colonialism in tanzania from the 1890s led to a series of environmental and health disasters
2. eg. rinderpests affected cattle and wild animals after being introduced
3. clearing of forests caused droughts
4. destroyed pastoral systems and lifestyles

Question 14

What did Randall packard say about malaira and colonialism? 5

Answer 14

1. connected malaria in swaziland with changes in agricultural policies and rural impoverishment
2. previously only occurred seasonally and limited fatalities
3. increase in malaria also due to demographic and political economy changes
4. population rises and colonial agricultural land restrictions caused movement to rocky, drought prone high and lowvelds
5. suffered economic depression in line with the rest of the world and malaria epidmics in the 1940s

Question 15

What did Mariynez Lyons say about rubber collecting in the Congo?

Answer 15

1. Exploitative and aggressive rubber gathering techniques in Congo exposed workers to trypanosomiasis
2. Part of King Leopolds civilising mission
3. Plantations forced large collections that kept workers away from home for several days in the forest
4. Exposed to tsetse fly - trypanosomiasis vector
5. Taxes and labour exploitation caused labour or migration and spread trypanosomiasis north of Nile basin

Question 16

Maize, cattle and mosquitos: the political economy of malaria epidemics in colonial Swaziland. RM Packard. 1984.

Describe the epidemiology of malaria in Swaziland. 5

Answer 16

1. Seasonal - November to April, especially occurred in low and middlevelds
2. In years of low rainfall free cases as poor breeding conditions for vector mosquitoes
3. More rainfall leads to more cases, but lack of evidence
4. Human carriers needed may relocate due to work, resettlement etc
5. Non resistant human hosts may increase infection

Question 17

Maize, cattle and mosquitos: the political economy of malaria epidemics in colonial Swaziland. RM Packard. 1984.

Describe the political economy of Swaziland 1890-1946. 7

Answer 17

1. More reliance on being employed for a she by those who were previously cattle farmers
2. Rinderpest epidemic damaged herds of previously self reliant populations
3. Couldn’t produce enough grain so purchase from Europe
4. Needed money for this and to repurchase land from Europeans so sought wages encouraged by their queen
5. After partition introduced in 1914 too many people living on good and left so not enough food produced
6. Maize markers ran in favour of South African Europeans
7. Swazi couldn’t buy much maize so harsh sips were felt more

Question 18

Maize, cattle and mosquitos: the political economy of malaria epidemics in colonial Swaziland. RM Packard. 1984.

How did the malaria epidemic of 1932 relate to famine? 3

Answer 18

1. Maisie was very experience during famine as Europeans sold theirs at high prices due to recession and a duty was added to imported maize
2. Cattle were sold in South Africa, then restrictions were imposed to reduce competition with whites
3. Other options eg save to Europeans were closed due to 1930s recessions

Question 19

Maize, cattle and mosquitos: the political economy of malaria epidemics in colonial Swaziland. RM Packard. 1984.

What was the impact of malaria in Swaziland? 4

Answer 19

1. Hard to find (well paid) employment as so many were searching
2. Women began to seek work until restricted by need for passes from husband
3. Famine followed by rains causing malaria in many who were not immune
4. Huge number of deaths present in all velds but worst cases in Lowveld and south generally

Question 20

Maize, cattle and mosquitos: the political economy of malaria epidemics in colonial Swaziland. RM Packard. 1984.

Describe the malaria epidemic of 1946. 6

Answer 20

1. Beforehand, drought led to famine
2. Regulations on how much maize could be sold for, lack of stores as not seen as cost effective, leading to worse famine
3. Swazi had to pay high prices as imported Union grain appeared same as Swazi grain so prices on Swazi grain by Europeans raised
4. Cattle sale started good in 1945 due to war, then dropped off due to drought and importation regulations designed to link competitor in South Africa
5. Food shortages lead to malnutrition
6. Extremely bad malaria epidemic follows

Question 21

Maize, cattle and mosquitos: the political economy of malaria epidemics in colonial Swaziland. RM Packard. 1984.

Describe the relationship between drought and famine and epidemiology of malaria. 5

Answer 21

1. Other African and Indian studies sighed famine and fright lead to malaria, often malaria preceded by drought
2. Drought lease to fewer vectors so drop in immunity, may particularly be a factor in 1932
3. Malaria may reduce nutrition servers impacting on those already malnourished and malnutrition may increase risk of malaria due to low levels of protein types
4. Swazi migration for employment cause the arrival of carriers in new places so more reservoirs
5. Due to movement to work on farms during lowveld famine and mines not recruiting

Question 22

M. Lyons. 1985.

What is the socio-economic context of sleeping sickness in Congo/Zaire? 3

Answer 22

1. conditions of society lead to epidemic
2. colonial settlement leads to more interaction, therefore spread of disease
3. Movement of Africans West to East in military expeditions disrupted the ecology and contributed to spread

Question 23

M. Lyons, 1985.

How does develop relate to sleeping sickness in colonial Congo/Zaire? 5

Answer 23

1. 1920s - french and belgians set out to screen all africans and identify those with disease
2. made them non-contagious with trypanocide injection, developed in 1905
3. first time europeans really considered african health as economic factors were involved
4. system of health in congo praised, seen as european responsibility as we colonised
5. very effective

Question 24

M. Lyons. 1985.

How does medicine impact colonial congo/zaire? 2

Answer 24

1. medical help was often rejected by africans as they saw it as admitting inferiority and acceptance, making large public efforts difficult
2. a repeat of this type of measure is not wanted by many africans

Question 25

R. Packard. 2001.

what is packard’s main argument? 5

Answer 25

1. claimed that malaria prevented settlement in and exploitation of land by south african officials and europeans
2. eradication for huge development to occur
3. no real evidence, just anecdotal
4. control may only have encouraged large scale farming as they seemed to benefit most
5. african farmers may have benefited from malaria in that in prevented more extensive white settlement

Question 26

R. Packard. 2001.

What was early african settlement like? 3

Answer 26

1. agricultural and foraging lifestyle
2. rinderpest epidemic caused cattle and game death so lack of sleeping sickness hosts and so more agricultural land
3. some incidents of malaria, did not appear impactful

Question 27

R. Packard. 2001.

Describe european settlement in africa. 3

Answer 27

1. could not settle in lower ground due to malaria
2. moved to develop farms by mozambique railway
3. farming became more commercial and grew, so more malaria

Question 28

R. Packard. 2001.

Describe how agricultural development and class formation contributed to the spread of malaria. 9

Answer 28

1. post WW1, farming grew and more whites arrived as exotic goods prices were high
2. malaria less of a problem as people knew how to protect themselves
3. government research lead to control measures, leading to less malaria and more farming
4. poor whites, mainly afrikaans, farmed on cheaper lowveld, where malaria was endemic. many were ex-soldiers
5. rich whites barely suffered as they took preventative measures, incl better houses, screens and quinine
6. lack of action due to ignorance etc. by poor whites
7. poverty also impacted - could not afford quinine etc
8. malaria was not the cause of poverty - other factors involved eg. drought and crop failure
9. whites settled in abandoned, malarious farms - could not afford improvements, nor where they eligible for state helps as the land was not rightfully their’s.

Question 29

R. Packard 2001.

how did african immunity impact malarial spread? 4

Answer 29

1. lowveld africans - immune, so whites relied on them for goods
2. immunity could be - and was - overcome by disease
3. starvation reduced immunity due to crop failures and high prices
4. northern african families displaced by white settlers moved to lowveld and suffered malaria, and could not move back north

Question 30

R. Packard. 2001.

what where the economic barriers to agricultural development in the transvaal lowveld? 4

Answer 30

1. labour shortages due to malaria
2. malaria’s perceived dangers meant more african farmers in lowveld so less labour for whites
3. foreign workers needed, but schemes could only be afforded by the rich
4. african labour shortages due to failed measures by native affairs department up until the 1940s, as plenty of squatting land remained available

Question 31

R. Packard. 2001.

How did malarial control effect postwar development of the lowveld? 5

Answer 31

1. DDT was effective at controlling malaria, so more successful white farms, so more expensive land
2. white population grew but fewer opportunities for poor whites to buy land
3. farm expansion led to less land available for Africans so they sought work
4. wages and conditions on farms were still poor so left to work elsewhere, continuing labour shortages
5. poor whites found jobs in other areas eg. commerce

Question 32

What where the medical, economic and political factors behind the rise of malaria epidemics in the late 19th century? Essay question.

Answer 32

1. forest clearance, railway building etc. led to more swampy areas, more breeding of mosquitoes therefore more malaria
2. top down approach of eradication used is often ineffective as it removed choice and local knowledge of the people
   3, medical - quinine eventually became available but was refused as locals did not want to take any help from the powerful white man
3. did not initially understand malaria causes
4. economic - new farmland allowed more spread as it connected previously empty spaces
5. migration due to labour surplus caused by removal of locals from their land
6. needed money for food as could no longer farm
7. political – europeans keen to overtake and civilise without considering wider impact of actions - just want economic benefits