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psychology > 6. research methods [YEAR 1] > Flashcards

6. research methods [YEAR 1] Flashcards

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1
Q

Experimental method

A

Involves the manipulation of an IV to measure the effect on the DV

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2
Q

Aim

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study

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3
Q

Hypothesis

A

A clear, precise, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study

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4
Q

Directional hypothesis

A

States the direction of the difference or relationship between two variables

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5
Q

Non-directional hypothesis

A

Does not state the direction of the difference or relationship between two variables

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6
Q

Variables

A

Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change within an investigation. Variables are generally used in experiments to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another

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7
Q

Independent variablw (IV)

A

Some aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher―or changes naturally―so the effect on DV can be measured

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8
Q

Dependent variable

A

The variable that is measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV should be caused by the change in the IV

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9
Q

Operationalisation

A

Clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured

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10
Q

Extraneous variables

A

Any variable, other than the IV, that may affect the DV if it is not controlled. They can skew the data

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11
Q

Confounding variables

A

A confounding variable varies systematically with the IV. Therefore we can’t tell if any change in the DV is due to the IV or the confounding variable

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12
Q

Demand characteristics

A

The participant changes their behaviour within the research situation

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13
Q

Investigator effects

A

Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome. This may include everything from he design of the study to the selection of participants during the research process

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14
Q

Randomisation

A

The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions

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15
Q

Standardisation

A

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

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16
Q

Experimental design

A

The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions

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17
Q

Independent groups design

A

Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition

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18
Q

Matched pairs design

A

Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable that may effect the DV. Then one member of the pairs is assigned to Condition A and the other to Condition B

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19
Q

Random allocation

A

An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other

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20
Q

Counterbalancing

A

An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order

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21
Q

Laboratory experiments

A

An experiment which takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables

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22
Q

Field experiment

A

An experiment that takes place within a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV

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23
Q

Natural experiment

A

An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher was not there. The researcher records the effect on a DV they have decided on

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24
Q

Quasi-experiment

A

A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients. The IV has not been determined by anyone — the ‘variables’ simply exist.

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25
Population
A group of people who are the focus of the researcher's interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn
26
Sample
A group of people who take part in a resarch investigation. This sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population
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Sampling techniques
The method used to select people from the population
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Bias
When certain groups are over- or under-represented within the sample selected. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population
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Generalisation
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population
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Random sampling
A sophisticated form of sampling in which all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected
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Systematic sampling
When every nth member of the target population is selected
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Statified sampling
The composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups within the target or wider population
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Opportunity sample
The researchers simply decide to select anyone who happens to be willing and available
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Volunteer sample
Participants select themselves to be part of the sample
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Ethical issues
These arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic, valid, and worthwile data
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Informed consent
Informed consent involves making participants aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights, and also what their data will be used for Participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information that might affect their decision to participate
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Deception
Deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation Participants should be given a full debrief at the end of a study
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Protection from harm
Participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and psychological harm
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Privacy and confidentiality
Participants have the right to control information about themselves, and extends to the area where the study took place
40
Presumptive consent
Rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If this group agrees, then consent of the original participants is 'presumed'
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Prior general consent
Participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies, including one that will involve deception. By consenting, participants are effectively consenting to being deceived
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Retrospective consent
Participants are asked for their consent during debriefing having already taken part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation or they may have been subject to deception
43
Pilot study
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted. The aim is to check that procedures and equipment work. It also allows the researcher to make changes or modifications if necessary
44
Naturalistic observation
Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur
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Controlled observation
Watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment
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Covert observation
Participants' behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent
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Overt obesrvation
Participants' behaviiour is being watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent
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Participant observation
The researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording
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Non-participant observation
The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are recording
50
Behavioural categories
When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measurable
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Event sampling
A target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs
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Time sampling
A target individual or group is first established then the researcher recrods their behaviour in a fixed time frame (e.g. every 60 seconds)
53
Self-report technique
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or experiences related to a given topic
54
Questionnaire
A set of written questions used to assess a person's thoughts and/or experiences
55
Inteview
A 'live' encounter where an interviewer asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee's thoughts and/or experiences. The questions may be preset or may develop as the interview goes along
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Open-question | Questionnaires
It does not have a fixed range of answers and participants are free to answer in any way they wish. The produce qualitative data which may be hard to analyse
57
Closed-question | Questionnaires
It offers a fixed number of responses. It produces quantitative data but may lack the depth and detail associated with open questions
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Structured interviews
Structured interviews are made up of a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed order
59
Unstructured interviews
An unstructured interview has no set questions but there is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed, and interaction tends to be free-flowing. The interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate their answers
60
Semi-structured interviews
In a semi-structured interview, a lost of questions have been worked out in advance but interviewers are also free to ask follow-up questions based on previous answers
61
Correlation
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables
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Positive correlation
As one co-variable increases, so does the other
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Negative correlation
As one co-variable increases, the other decreases
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Zero correlation
When there is no relationship between the co-variables
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Qualitative data
Data that is expressed in words and non-numerical
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Quantitative data
Data that is expressed in numerical form, can be counted. It can be easily converted into graphs, charts, etc.
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Secondary data
Information that has already been collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project
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Primary data
Data that has been obtained first-hand by a researcher for the purposes of a research project
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Meta-analysis
The process of combining the findings from a number of studies on a particular topic. The aim is to produce an overall statistical conclusion based on a range of studies
69
Descriptive statistics
The use of graphs, tables, and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data
70
Measures of central tendency
The general term for any measure of the average value in a set of data
71
Mean | Defintion; strength; limitation
The arithmetic average calculated by adding up all the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of values. ― The most representative as it includes all of the values in a data set ― It is easily distorted by extreme values
72
Median | Definition; strength; limitation
The central value in a set of data when values are arranged from lowest to highest ― Unaffected by extreme scores ― Less sensitive than the mean as extreme values are ignored but may be important
73
Mode | Definition; limitation
The most frequently occuring value in a set of data ― Not representative of the whole data set ― When there are several modes, it is not a very useful piece of information
74
Measures of dispersion
Based on the spread of scores: how far scores vary and differ from one another.
75
Range | Definition; strength; limitation
A simple calculation of the spread of scores and is worked out by taking the lowest value from the highest value ― It is easy to calculate ― It only takes into account the two most extreme values and may be representative of the data set as a whole ― It does not indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around the mean or spread out
76
Standard deviation | Defintion; strength; limitation
Standard deviation is a single value that tells us how far scores deviate (move away) from the mean. The larger the standard deviation, the greater the dispersion or spread within a set of data. ― Much more precise measure of dispersion as it includes all values in the final calculation ― It can be distorted by a single extreme value, and these values may not be revealed
77
Scattergram
A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis ― They not depict differences but associations
78
Bar chart
A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is represented by the height of the bars ― Used when data is divided into categories (discrete data)
79
Histogram
A type of graph which shows frequency, but the area of the bars represents freqency. The x-axis must start at a true zero and the scale is continuous (shows continuous data)
80
Normal distribution
A symmetrical spread of frequency data that forms a bell-shaped pattern. The mean, median, and mode are all located at the highest point | Most people are located in the middle, with very few at extreme ends
81
Skewed distribution | Definition; positive skew; negative skew
A spread of frequency data that is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end
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Positive skew
A type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left
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Negative skew
A type of frequency distribution in which the long tailis on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right
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Statistical testing
Provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected
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Sign test
A statistical test used to analyse the difference in scores between related items
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Peer review
The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality
87
The main aims of peer review
― To allocate research funding ― To validate the quality and relevance of research ― To suggest amendments or improvements

psychology (7 decks)

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