2.1: Gender bias in psychology

Question 1

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.

Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks)

Answer 1

Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias

Question 2

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research

Answer 2

One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed

Question 3

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.

Answer 3

Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated

Question 4

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
Example

Answer 4

For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one

Question 5

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias

Answer 5

Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research

Question 6

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
Example

Answer 6

For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females)

Question 7

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism

Answer 7

Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women

Question 8

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
Example

Answer 8

For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000)

Question 9

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias

Answer 9

Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony

Question 10

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

First AO3 PEEL paragraph

Answer 10

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society

Question 11

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
Example

Answer 11

For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences

Question 12

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
What does this do?

Answer 12

This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment

Question 13

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as

Answer 13

This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones

Question 14

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
What could this be?

Answer 14

This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers

Question 15

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
What does this show?

Answer 15

This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated

Question 16

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

Second AO3 PEEL paragraph

Answer 16

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature

Question 17

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
Example

Answer 17

For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth

Question 18

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth.
Such

Answer 18

Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts’

Question 19

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth.
Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts.’
What does this often do?

Answer 19

This often creates a double standard in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective

Question 20

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth.
Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts.’
This often creates a double standard in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective.

Third AO3 PEEL paragraph

Answer 20

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that despite this, there are ways to overcome gender bias - feminist psychology and reflexivity

Question 21

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth.
Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts.’
This often creates a double standard in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that despite this, there are ways to overcome gender bias - feminist psychology and reflexivity.
Feminist psychologists

Answer 21

Feminist psychologists agree that there may be biological differences between men and women (for example fight or flight vs tend and befriend), but socially determined stereotypes make a bigger contribution to those perceived differences than biology

Question 22

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth.
Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts.’
This often creates a double standard in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that despite this, there are ways to overcome gender bias - feminist psychology and reflexivity.
Feminist psychologists agree that there may be biological differences between men and women (for example fight or flight vs tend and befriend), but socially determined stereotypes make a bigger contribution to those perceived differences than biology.
Therefore,

Answer 22

Therefore, they claim that there is a need to review gender ‘facts’ in order to redress the gender imbalances in psychology.
Murphy et al. (2014) point out that the gender imbalance in psychology is particularly strange when you consider that most undergraduate psychology students are women.
They argue that part of the problem is that women also believe gender stereotypes and endorse male superiority

Question 23

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth.
Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts.’
This often creates a double standard in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that despite this, there are ways to overcome gender bias - feminist psychology and reflexivity.
Feminist psychologists agree that there may be biological differences between men and women (for example fight or flight vs tend and befriend), but socially determined stereotypes make a bigger contribution to those perceived differences than biology.
Therefore, they claim that there is a need to review gender ‘facts’ in order to redress the gender imbalances in psychology.
Murphy et al. (2014) point out that the gender imbalance in psychology is particularly strange when you consider that most undergraduate psychology students are women.
They argue that part of the problem is that women also believe gender stereotypes and endorse male superiority.
If the imbalance is to be redressed,

Answer 23

If the imbalance is to be redressed, we all must become aware of our biases

Question 24

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth.
Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts.’
This often creates a double standard in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that despite this, there are ways to overcome gender bias - feminist psychology and reflexivity.
Feminist psychologists agree that there may be biological differences between men and women (for example fight or flight vs tend and befriend), but socially determined stereotypes make a bigger contribution to those perceived differences than biology.
Therefore, they claim that there is a need to review gender ‘facts’ in order to redress the gender imbalances in psychology.
Murphy et al. (2014) point out that the gender imbalance in psychology is particularly strange when you consider that most undergraduate psychology students are women.
They argue that part of the problem is that women also believe gender stereotypes and endorse male superiority.
If the imbalance is to be redressed, we all must become aware of our biases.
As well as this,

Answer 24

As well as this, Judith Worrell (1992) argued that in order to avoid gender bias in research, women should be studied in real life contexts and diversity within groups of women (as opposed to men) should be examined.
She also advocated qualitative and collaborative research, rather than quantitative, numerical data

Question 25

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth.
Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts.’
This often creates a double standard in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that despite this, there are ways to overcome gender bias - feminist psychology and reflexivity.
Feminist psychologists agree that there may be biological differences between men and women (for example fight or flight vs tend and befriend), but socially determined stereotypes make a bigger contribution to those perceived differences than biology.
Therefore, they claim that there is a need to review gender ‘facts’ in order to redress the gender imbalances in psychology.
Murphy et al. (2014) point out that the gender imbalance in psychology is particularly strange when you consider that most undergraduate psychology students are women.
They argue that part of the problem is that women also believe gender stereotypes and endorse male superiority.
If the imbalance is to be redressed, we all must become aware of our biases.
As well as this, Judith Worrell (1992) argued that in order to avoid gender bias in research, women should be studied in real life contexts and diversity within groups of women (as opposed to men) should be examined.
She also advocated qualitative and collaborative research, rather than quantitative, numerical data.

Fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph

Answer 25

The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that reflexivity is that many modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work and in doing so they make sure its objectivity is not threatened

Question 26

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth.
Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts.’
This often creates a double standard in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that despite this, there are ways to overcome gender bias - feminist psychology and reflexivity.
Feminist psychologists agree that there may be biological differences between men and women (for example fight or flight vs tend and befriend), but socially determined stereotypes make a bigger contribution to those perceived differences than biology.
Therefore, they claim that there is a need to review gender ‘facts’ in order to redress the gender imbalances in psychology.
Murphy et al. (2014) point out that the gender imbalance in psychology is particularly strange when you consider that most undergraduate psychology students are women.
They argue that part of the problem is that women also believe gender stereotypes and endorse male superiority.
If the imbalance is to be redressed, we all must become aware of our biases.
As well as this, Judith Worrell (1992) argued that in order to avoid gender bias in research, women should be studied in real life contexts and diversity within groups of women (as opposed to men) should be examined.
She also advocated qualitative and collaborative research, rather than quantitative, numerical data.

The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that reflexivity is that many modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work and in doing so they make sure its objectivity is not threatened.
Example

Answer 26

For example, Dambrin and Lambert (2008) reflected on how their gender experiences could have influenced their interpretation of the study they did on the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms

Question 27

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth.
Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts.’
This often creates a double standard in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that despite this, there are ways to overcome gender bias - feminist psychology and reflexivity.
Feminist psychologists agree that there may be biological differences between men and women (for example fight or flight vs tend and befriend), but socially determined stereotypes make a bigger contribution to those perceived differences than biology.
Therefore, they claim that there is a need to review gender ‘facts’ in order to redress the gender imbalances in psychology.
Murphy et al. (2014) point out that the gender imbalance in psychology is particularly strange when you consider that most undergraduate psychology students are women.
They argue that part of the problem is that women also believe gender stereotypes and endorse male superiority.
If the imbalance is to be redressed, we all must become aware of our biases.
As well as this, Judith Worrell (1992) argued that in order to avoid gender bias in research, women should be studied in real life contexts and diversity within groups of women (as opposed to men) should be examined.
She also advocated qualitative and collaborative research, rather than quantitative, numerical data.

The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that reflexivity is that many modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work and in doing so they make sure its objectivity is not threatened.
For example, Dambrin and Lambert (2008) reflected on how their gender experiences could have influenced their interpretation of the study they did on the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms.
What does this suggest?

Answer 27

This suggests that gender bias can be overcome

Question 28

Discuss gender bias in psychological research.
Refer to examples of alpha bias and beta bias in your answer (16 marks).
Psychology claims universality, that psychological laws can be applied to all, for example mental illness, but universality is undermined by bias, such as gender bias.
One form of gender bias in psychological research is essentialism, which states that gender differences are fixed.
Essentialism leas to alpha bias, which is the belief that there are fixed and inevitable differences between the genders that are often exaggerated.
For example, Freud’s psychodynamic theory claimed that women are morally inferior to men as they form a weaker superego as a result of having different psychosexual development during the phallic stage.
He also saw women as sexually inferior to men as femininity is essentially failed masculinity as demonstrated by his concept of penis envy.
Alpha bias suggests a real difference between the genders, when in fact, there isn’t one.
Another form of gender bias is androcentrism, which is when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard and only men are studied in research.
For example, Asch studied conformity in one gender (males) and attempted to apply their norms to both genders (males and females).
Androcentrism leads to the final form of gender bias in psychology, beta bias, which ignores, reduces or minimises the differences between men and women.
For example, early research into the fight or flight response used exclusively male animals (preferable as females have hormonal fluctuation).
This minimises a real difference in the stress response, as females have evolved to ‘tend and befriend’ in times of stress (Taylor, 2000).
Beta bias suggests there is no difference between the genders.
In fact, there is a difference.
This is supported by Eagly, who found that men are, on average, more concerned about appearing to have high status and may be able to demonstrate this status by acting independently from the opinions of others.
Women are, on average, more concerned with connecting to others and maintaining group harmony.

The first AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with alpha bias, specifically in relation to the biomedical view, is that it has a negative impact on the mental health and treatment of women and it could also lead to negative stereotypes of women in society.
For example, women are 2 times more likely than men to be diagnosed with depression and adherents of the biomedical view argue that this is due to hormonal differences.
This limits the social mobility of women and also prevents them from receiving the appropriate treatment, as the real cause is not being treated, since it is being masked by hormones.
This could be the increased expectations and pressure of women in contemporary society to be the caregivers and the providers.
This shows that a difference between the genders does not exist and is exaggerated.

The second AO3 PEEL paragraph is that one issue with gender bias in psychology is that many of the gender differences reported by psychologists over the years are based on an essential perspective - that the gender difference in question is inevitable (essential) and ‘fixed’ in nature.
For example, Valerie Walkerdine (1990) reports how in the 1930s, ‘scientific’ research revealed how intellectual activity such as attending university would shrivel a woman’s ovaries and harm her chances of giving birth.
Such essentialist accounts in psychology are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts.’
This often creates a double standard in the way that the same behaviour is viewed from a male and female perspective.

The third AO3 PEEL paragraph is that despite this, there are ways to overcome gender bias - feminist psychology and reflexivity.
Feminist psychologists agree that there may be biological differences between men and women (for example fight or flight vs tend and befriend), but socially determined stereotypes make a bigger contribution to those perceived differences than biology.
Therefore, they claim that there is a need to review gender ‘facts’ in order to redress the gender imbalances in psychology.
Murphy et al. (2014) point out that the gender imbalance in psychology is particularly strange when you consider that most undergraduate psychology students are women.
They argue that part of the problem is that women also believe gender stereotypes and endorse male superiority.
If the imbalance is to be redressed, we all must become aware of our biases.
As well as this, Judith Worrell (1992) argued that in order to avoid gender bias in research, women should be studied in real life contexts and diversity within groups of women (as opposed to men) should be examined.
She also advocated qualitative and collaborative research, rather than quantitative, numerical data.

The fourth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that reflexivity is that many modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work and in doing so they make sure its objectivity is not threatened.
For example, Dambrin and Lambert (2008) reflected on how their gender experiences could have influenced their interpretation of the study they did on the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms.
This suggests that gender bias can be overcome.

Fifth AO3 PEEL paragraph

Answer 28

The fifth AO3 PEEL paragraph is that gender bias could perhaps also be overcome by including males and females in equal quantities in research