A Glossary of terms

Question 1

A posteriori

Answer 1

After experience, a posteriori knowledge is knowledge that stems from sensory observation. It is factual, sensory, inductive, and empirical.

Question 2

A priori

Answer 2

Before experience, a priori knowledge that does not requires sensory (empirical) observation. It is known without sense experience. It is innate, intuitive, analytical, deductive, and rational

Question 3

Adequate knowledge

Answer 3

Spinoza’s second kind of knowledge. Adequate knowledge is rational knowledge that can be used to counteract inadequate knowledge and lead to a stage of positive freedom.

Question 4

Advaita

Answer 4

The Hindu term for non-duality. The idea that body, mind and all the material substance of the universe form a single unitary whole. All is one.

Question 5

Advocate

Answer 5

To advocate something is to be in favour of this something, to promote it, to push the idea of it forward in order to persuade others to adopt it.

Question 6

Agent

Answer 6

An agent is the performer of an action, the instrument of the action, the thing that causes the action or has the authority or potential to act.

Question 7

Akrasia

Answer 7

A classical Greek term meaning ‘Weakness of will’. An inability to control one’s actions through the development of good habit and rational constraint.

Question 8

Alienation

Answer 8

Alienation is the loss of one’s personal connection to the environment or to the self. To become estranged with one’s true identity. To be in a state of detachement or non-involvement.

Question 9

Alliance

Answer 9

An alliance is an agreement between individuals, or groups of individuals, to support each other in their goals. People who have such an agreement are called allies.

Question 10

Altruistic

Answer 10

If something is altruistic, it is motivated by the will to serve the interests of others rather than the interests of the self. The noun form is altruism; an altruistic person is an altruist.

Question 11

Amoral

Answer 11

An amoral act is an act that goes against the accepted values of a community but is performed by an agent who is not aware of these values because the values within the agent’s community are very different. The agent does not know or think that the action is bad. ( See theory ‘Moral Relativism’

Question 12

Analogous

Answer 12

If something is analogous, it is similar or has a parallel meaning. An analogy is a substitute story or description with an analogous meaning. A correspondence of meaning or context.

Question 13

Analogy

Answer 13

An analogy is when something is presented using an example that is similar in situation to that which is being presented and referred to indirectly (by means of the analogy). Analogies are often used to present a complex idea in simpler terms using a similar situation that expresses the concept more clearly.

Question 14

Anguish

Answer 14

In existentialism, anguish means a constant state of anxiety, unrest and malcontent.

Question 15

Annata

Answer 15

The Buddhist term for non-duality. The idea that body, mind and all the material substance of the universe form a single unitary whole. All is one.

Question 16

Anti-sceptical

Answer 16

If someone is anti-sceptical then they are inclined to believe rather than doubt. Anti-sceptics do not see the value of doubt as a permanent attitude. (See scepticism)

Question 17

Antithesis

Answer 17

An antithesis is one part of a three part dialectical process (See dialectic). The antithesis is the critical reaction or response to the thesis. A claim within a thesis creates counter-arguments in the antithesis.

Question 18

Authentic

Answer 18

In existentialism, to be authentic is to act according to the values that you have rationally chosen to live by. With full knowledge of the futility and ultimate meaninglessness of existence, an authentic individual, nevertheless lives by these chosen values.

Question 19

Automata

Answer 19

A living being that is regarded as not having consciousness, a mechanistic being that acts by routing without intelligence (See reductionism)

Question 20

Bad Faith

Answer 20

In existentialism, to act in bad faith is when someone tries to avoid the responsibility of defining their own values. It is the fear of freedom to create an authentic personal value system. A pretense of being bound to existing local or traditional beliefs.

Question 21

Bias

Answer 21

Bias is the presence of opinion. Someone who is biased had a particular stance, tendency or leaning in favour of, or against a certain issue. If somebody is unbiased, then they are impartial, they are neither for nor against the subject of concern.

Question 22

Body politic

Answer 22

The collective body of the people in its political capacity; a singular concept made up of numerous individuals.

Question 23

Casuistry

Answer 23

In applied ethics, casuistry is the discipline of ‘case-based’ reasoning. A casuist uses cases to examine issues. Casuistry can be used in law ( Case law and jurisprudence). Paradigm cases can be used as templates to illustrate what should be done, or what should be considered in similar cases.

Question 24

Categorical imperative

Answer 24

The categorical imperative is Kant’s absolute duty. This is radical duty, a duty to follow the rational application of his method without considering emotion, empathy or altruism.

Question 25

Causal determinism

Answer 25

Causal determinism means the same as causative determinism ( See ‘Causative determinism’)

Question 26

Causation

Answer 26

Causation is a relationship between events. It is how one event generates or causes a secondary event that is thought to naturally follow it. Causation is a tricky phenomenon when we consider what is that is a cause. David Hume describes causation in therms of induction. According to Hume, causation is a repeated pattern of expectation that is created in the mind. That a cause in itself does not exist as an independent ontological thing.

Question 27

Causative determinism

Answer 27

Causative determinism is the view that all events are pre-determined by cause and effect. Causative (or causal) determinism is suggested by Reductionism. If all our actions are simply caused by mechanistic processes, then this has serious implications for the notion of free will and free moral agency. Determinists are divided into compatibilists and incompatibilists depending on their belief in free will.

Question 28

Causative indeterminism

Answer 28

Causative indeterminism is the opposite view to causative determinism. Indeterminists do not believe in predetermination.

Question 29

Civility

Answer 29

The condition of being politely civilized, or well-mannered.

Question 30

Coherentism

Answer 30

In epistemology, coherentism is a movement that seeks to establish certainty about what we know. Coherentists believe that knowledge is reliable when it fits, connects or coheres with other knowledge items that surround it.
It is the view that al our knowledge should connect like a spider’s web without causing contradictions or disagreements between items. If knowledge items do not conflict in this way, then we can assume that this knowledge is reliable and coherent. Foundationalism is an alternative movement with similar aims.

Question 31

Collective subconscious

Answer 31

Carl Jung’s view that we all share knowledge from the same source - the subconscious. The collective subconscious contains standard archetypes (personality models) that we all seem to share. This seems to support the ideas of Schopenhauer.

Question 32

Commodities

Answer 32

Commodities are goods that can be sold, they are properties that can be exchanged or transferred for money or other property goods.

Question 33

Common will

Answer 33

Common will, according to Jean Jacques Rousseau, is something that combines (1) the sum of the individual wills of each person in a sovereignty with (2) what is in the general interest of the people. The common will is more that what the people want; it is what they would choose for as representing their common interest (See ‘Tragedy of the commons’). The common will is hierarchically superior to the individual will because the common interest that it serves is more important to the individual than an individual’s purely private interest.

Question 34

Compatibilism

Answer 34

Compatibilism is the view that the world is causally determined and that causative determinism is compatible with (it does not prevent or stand in the way of) free moral agency or free will.

Question 35

Compatibilist

Answer 35

A compatibilist is someone who believes that the world is causally determined and that causative determinism is compatible with (it does not prevent or stand in the way of) free moral agency or free will.

Question 36

Conglomeration

Answer 36

A conglomeration is a collection of things that have come together, a bunching of things.

Question 37

Consensual

Answer 37

If something is consensual it is based on voluntary agreement. It has been done with consent.

Question 38

Consent

Answer 38

Consent is a noun that means voluntary agreement. If someone consents to something then they allow it or support it voluntarily.

Question 39

Consequentialism

Answer 39

Consequentialism is a term used to describe a group op normative theories that define the source of morality in terms of the consequences or outcome of actions. It is what an action creates that is good, rather than actions themselves being good or the intentions that lead to actions being good.

Question 40

Consequentialist

Answer 40

A consequentialist theory is a theory that stems from consequentialism.

Question 41

Conservatism

Answer 41

Conservatism is a philosophy that values the stability and relative safety of tradition. Conservatives aim to maintain present conditions and solutions that have a history of success or stability, favoring these to the unknown conditions that may arise with new approaches and solutions.

Question 42

Constitution

Answer 42

A system of written laws and customs established by the sovereign power of a state for its own guidance.

Question 43

Contradiction

Answer 43

A contradiction is a denial or an inconsistency between things. A property of (or in) one thing finds an opposite property that is contrary to it in the other thing. ‘Hot Ice’ or ‘Cold fire’ are contradictions in terms.

Question 44

Culmination

Answer 44

The highest point of accumulation. When smaller parts all come together to create a final something. A grand final combined collection.

Question 45

Deduction

Answer 45

Deduction is a method of inference. The deductive process takes one or two propositions called premises ( minor and major) and derives a logical conclusion from them. The strength of a deductive argument lies in the strength of the premises on which the deductive argument is based. If the truths of the premises are accepted, and the form of the argument is valid, then the conclusion must also be accepted. In this case the conclusion is said to be sound. Deduction uses rational principles based on formal logic. The arguments are analytical. Deductive arguments are used to apply factual knowledge gained from empirical sources to a broader range of contexts. An alternative form of inference is induction. Both induction and deduction form part of the empirical process, also known as the scientific method.

Question 46

Deontological

Answer 46

A deontological theory is a theory based on ‘Duty’. From the classical Greek term ‘Deon’ - duty. Kant’s categorical imperative is a paradigm example.

Question 47

Derivative

Answer 47

A derivative of something is something that stems from something else. It is derived from it, it comes from it, and it is generated from it.

Question 48

Descriptive

Answer 48

If something is descriptive then it defines the qualities of the ( already existent) thing being described. The opposite is prescriptive.

Question 49

Determinism

Answer 49

Causative determinism is the view that all events are pre-determined by cause and effect. Causative (or causal) determinism is suggested by Reductionism. If all our actions are simply caused by mechanistic processes, then this has serious implications for the notion of free will and free moral agency. Determinists are divided into compatibilists and incompatibilists depending on their belief in free will.

Question 50

Determinist

Answer 50

A determinist is someone who believes that events are causally determined ( See ‘Causative determinism’). That human cations are caused by conditions that precede them and perhaps not through free will ( See ‘Incompatibilism’). A person who believes the opposite is an indeterminist.

Question 51

Dharma

Answer 51

Dharma is a term that is important in the Dharmic religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. It has a similar meaning to the term ‘Virtue’ or ‘Correct way of living’ (See ‘Karma’).

Question 52

Dialectic

Answer 52

A dialectic is the name given to the generative process of thesis, antithesis and synthesis ( See ‘Historical dialecticism’)

Question 53

Dialectical

Answer 53

If something is dialectical, then it is based on the generative process of thesis, antithesis and synthesis.

Question 54

Division of labour

Answer 54

Division of labour means the process of professional specialization that was facilitated by the trading surplus goods. The labour market is divided into sectors, branches and specialist industries and services.

Question 55

Duty-based ethic

Answer 55

A duty-based ethic is where a duty to perform or refrain from committing a certain action defines what is moral. The concept of good is connected to duties ( of various kinds) that we supposedly have. A deontological theory is another term for a moral theory based on duty.

Question 56

Empathy

Answer 56

Empathy is the ability to project on’s self mentally into the circumstances of other’s in order to understand their problems, emotions and general circumstances.

Question 57

Empirical

Answer 57

If something is empirical, then it stems from sensory perception. This involves the sense organs. The senses are sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch ( see ‘Empiricism blow’)

Question 58

Empiricism

Answer 58

In epistemology, empiricism is the stream of thought that regards sensory perception as the source of reliable knowledge. The alternative stream is Rationalism. Empiricism and rationalism were two distinct and opposed directions in Foundationalism.

Question 59

Empiricist

Answer 59

An empiricist is a follower of the empiricism. An empiricist believes in the supremacy of sensory knowledge over rationalism.

Question 60

Ends

Answer 60

An end is an objective, a goal, a purpose, a motive that drives action. Ends can be intermediate or final. An intermediate end is a minor ambition en route to a grander final end. The achievement of an end requires a means of accomplishment.

Question 61

Epistemology

Answer 61

Epistemology is the theory of knowledge. An epistemologist studies the nature of knowledge in therms of how it is acquired (by which process) and how certain or reliable knowledge is likely to be ( See ‘Foundationalism’ and ‘Coherentism’.

Question 62

Eudemonia

Answer 62

Eudemonia is classical Greek term with a meaning that combines happiness and flourishing. It is an important concept in virtue theory which regards the attainment of eudemonic as the ultimate goal in life.

Question 63

Extension

Answer 63

Extension is a distance between two points on a plane. Spatial extension refers to the 3 dimensions of length, width and height in 3 dimensional space.

Question 64

Fact-value distinction

Answer 64

The fact-value distinction is the belief that empirical facts and normative values are two fundamentally different kinds of things. Facts stem from sensory observation of phenomena, whereas values, such as good and bad, do not have any observable phenomena to form their substance. This view has caused intense debate and has led to two general positions regarding normative values. One is Moral realism which denies the fact-value distinction; the other is Moral anti-realism which maintains this distinction. David Hume expressed that fact0value distinction in his famous slogan ‘no ought from is’.

Question 65

Felicific calculus

Answer 65

Felicific calculus is the (largely unworkable) calculation method devised by Jeremy Bentham to calculate happiness. It was used to predict total happiness outcomes that aimed to achieve Bentham’s goal of ‘the greatest good for the greatest number’. (See theory ‘Hedonistic Utilitarianism’.

Question 66

Forage

Answer 66

To forage is to look for and collect natural resources such as food and other materials, it does not involve growing or manufacturing materials but relies on finding by luck and change.

Question 67

Forced consent

Answer 67

Forced consent is a contradiction in terms. Consent implies voluntary agreement; forced consent implies an involuntary agreement without consent, Forced consent is agreement imposed by force.

Question 68

Foundationalism

Answer 68

In epistemology, foundationalism is a movement that seeks to establish solid foundations on which to build our expanding body of knowledge. Foundationalists aim at establishing a firm bed of indisputable facts on top of which a superstructure of additional knowledge is built. The goal is to generate more certainty about what we know. There are two main sub-divisions within foundationalism; Empiricism and Rationalism. Coherentism is an alternative movement with similar epistemological aims to Foundationalism.

Question 69

Free moral agency

Answer 69

Someone is a free moral agent if they are free to act according to a value. The focus is on their freedom to be an agent of action. This would imply a position of indeterminism or compatibilism.

Question 70

Free will

Answer 70

Free will is similar to moral agency ( above) in that it implies a position of indeterminism or compatibilism. The emphasis, however, is on the freedom of the will rather than the freedom to act on this will. The term will suggests the control of desires, motives and wants.

Question 71

Geist

Answer 71

The German term Geist has a meaning that combines mind and spirit ( See ‘Zeitgeist’ and ‘Historical Dialecticism’).

Question 72

Gnostic knowledge

Answer 72

Gnostic knowledge is extra-sensory knowledge. It does not stem from empirical or rational processes. It is purely intuitive, it is a priori, it is revelation, it is often religious.

Question 73

Golden mean

Answer 73

In virtue theory, the golden mean is the goal of finding balance and harmony by avoiding extremes. A virtue represents this golden mean. It is found between the extremes of two vices. The term ‘mean’ means average.

Question 74

Harm principle

Answer 74

The harm principle is John Stuart Mill’s liberal view that if someone’s action does not cause harm to others that there can be no legitimate reason for a government or individual to prevent someone from committing this act. ( See ‘Negative Freedom’)

Question 75

Historical dialect

Answer 75

A developmental process described by Hegel. History develops through a dialectal process of thesis, antithesis and synthesis. Successful ideas survive this process, unsuccessful ideas do not. This is how history develops. This is how human consciousness, Mind or Geist develops. It is Geist that drives history because Geist generates the action that steer and create history. History can only be truly understood in the context of Geist which is teleological.

Question 76

Hypothesis

Answer 76

A hypothesis is a claim to knowledge that is presented for critical analysis. A propositional statement containing an assertion.

Question 77

Hypothetical.

Answer 77

If something is hypothetical then it is an imagined situation, a model, a suppositional something proposed for an argument.

Question 78

Idealist

Answer 78

An idealist is a supporter of philosophical idealism. Idealism is an anti-materialist theory of perception that views ontological reality as immaterial or non substance based. This conception of ontology regards the external world as being formed within the mind of a subject. It denies the material existence of substantial matter. The opposite belief is materialism.

Question 79

Immoral

Answer 79

If an action is immoral then it is ethically bad. An immoral act implies that the agent of the action is aware that the action offends a moral norm, this would be the view of a moral relativist.

Question 80

Impartiality

Answer 80

Impartiality is the condition of ‘not being in favor of, and not being against something’. It is a position of neutrality.

Question 81

Imperative

Answer 81

In grammar, an imperative is an order or a command. ‘Pass me the salt’ is an imperative.

Question 82

Imperceptible

Answer 82

If something is imperceptible, it can not be perceived. It does not have the capacity of being sensed.

Question 83

Implicit

Answer 83

Implicit means ‘Contained within’. If something has an implicit meaning, then this meaning is contained within it, it is implied. The opposite of implicit is explicit.

Question 84

Implicitly

Answer 84

An adverb that denotes the quality of having a ‘meaning contained within’.

Question 85

Inadequate knowledge

Answer 85

Inadequate knowledge is Spinoza’s first kind of knowledge. It is empirical, sense based knowledge that includes the passions, and un-chosen desires. It is hierarchically inferior to his adequate knowledge ( rational knowledge) or his knowledge of the third kind (Gnostic knowledge).

Question 86

Incessant

Answer 86

An incessant something is a something that does not stop. It keeps on going, continuously, incessantly.

Question 87

Incompatibilism

Answer 87

Incompatibilism is the view that the world is causally determined and that causative determinism is not compatible with free moral agency or free will.

Question 88

Incompatibilist

Answer 88

An incompatibilist is someone who believes that the world is causally determined and that causative determinism is not compatible with free moral agency or free will.

Question 89

Incompatible

Answer 89

If something is incompatible then it does not fit with something else. The presence or truth of one thing does not allow the presence or truth of the other.

Question 90

Incomprehensible

Answer 90

If something is incomprehensible then it is not possible for us to understand it, it is beyond our ability to comprehend.

Question 91

Indefinable

Answer 91

Something that is indefinable cannot be defined. Its qualities cannot be described in order to form a conceptual model for its replication. Its qualities are insufficiently distinct ( See ‘indistinct ideas’) to the senses to be described.

Question 92

Indeterminism

Answer 92

Causative indeterminism is the opposite view to causative determinism. Indeterminists do not believe in predetermination. (See ‘Causative indeterminism’)

Question 93

Indisputable

Answer 93

If something is indisputable, then it cannot be doubted or contested. It is clearly true or evident.

Question 94

Indistinct ideas

Answer 94

An indistinct idea is an idea that lacks clarity. It cannot be connected to distinct things that exist in a clear way. Words that describe indistinct ideas lack empirical sources. Words that describe indistinct ideas are considered by some to be pollutants that stand in the way of scientific progress.

Question 95

Induction

Answer 95

Induction is the process of collecting observed instances of empirical observations to create facts. The problem with inductive knowledge is that it is based on the best knowledge we have until now. It is probabilistic; it is based on statistical likelihood. Even if all observed lead to exactly the same conclusion, then this is no guarantee that the facts ( or hypothesis) will not be disproved later by an observation that does not follow the expected or predicted pattern. The truths are contingent, they do not exclude the possibility of being proved false; they are falsifiable. ( See ‘Scepticism’)

Question 96

Inductive

Answer 96

If something is inductive, or stems from the inductive process, then the sensory, or empirical process of induction has been used to generate or acquire it.

Question 97

Innate knowledge

Answer 97

Innate knowledge is knowledge that is known a priori. It is intuitive knowledge. It is knowledge that exists without the need of sensory perception.

Question 98

Insatiable

Answer 98

If something is insatiable then it does not have the ability to be satisfied. An insatiable thirst, for example, means that there is an unending demand for drink that no amount of supply can hope to satisfy.

Question 99

Interest

Answer 99

An interest is that which will promote the benefit of someone or something. Interests can be selfish and private or public and altruistic.

Question 100

Intervention

Answer 100

Intervention is the act of stopping or interfering with something or trying to control something by means of law, force or mediation.

Question 101

Intrinsic

Answer 101

An intrinsic quality or property is a quality or property that can be found within something - it is internal. The opposite is an extrinsic quality which is external to something.

Question 102

Introspection

Answer 102

Introspection is the action of looking inwardly, the process of self reflection to examine internal processes.

Question 103

Intuition

Answer 103

Intuition is a form of perception that does not employ the sensory organs. It is a mysterious, perhaps emotional method of sensing that does not rely on sight, sound, smell, taste or touch.

Question 104

Intuitive knowledge

Answer 104

Intuitive knowledge is knowledge gained by intuition. It is similar, or perhaps even the same as Gnostic knowledge.

Question 105

Irrefutable

Answer 105

Something that is irrefutable cannot be refuted, contested or argued against. It is clearly self evident and obviously true.

Question 106

Karma

Answer 106

Karma is a term that is important in Dharmic religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. The meaning of Karma can be interpreted to mean ‘the fruits of action’ - in other words, the things that actions cause ( See ‘Dharma’).

Question 107

Knowledge of the 3rd kind

Answer 107

Knowledge of the 3rd kind is Spinoza’s highest level of attainable knowledge. It is Gnostic knowledge or intuitive knowledge. It is known a-priori, by revelation. According to Spinoza, it is only by developing adequate knowledge that one can ever hope to attain knowledge of the 3rd kind.

Question 108

Manifestation

Answer 108

A manifestation is an appearance, a presentation before the senses. A revealing of something.

Question 109

Marginalisation

Answer 109

The process of being placed on the edge, outskirts, border, margin. Not gaining a centrally prominent position. Being caused to inhabit a position of less importance.

Question 110

Means

Answer 110

A means is a method to achieve a goal, a way to accomplish something that is an end. Kant’s ethics state that one should always deal with a person as if that person was an end, and never as a mere means to an end.

Question 111

Mechanistic

Answer 111

If something is mechanistic then it is machine like, mechanical, the results of simple physical forces acting to create effects.

Question 112

Meta-ethics

Answer 112

Meta-ethics is the discipline that studies the metaphysical foundations of morality and moral theories. It concerns the question of wether or not moral values, such as good and bad, have an ontological existence, and if not, how we should regard normative statements about values as opposed to facts ( See ‘Fact-value distinction’)

Question 113

Metaphysics

Answer 113

The part of ontology that is real, or is suggested to be real, but cannot be experienced with the senses or devices that extend the range of our senses. All that is beyond the scope of our sensory capacities. Kant’s nominal, as opposed phenomenal, world.

Question 114

Mind object

Answer 114

An object, or a representation of an object, as it exists in the mind as opposed to how the object exists independent of the mind.

Question 115

Monarchist

Answer 115

A monarchist is someone who is in favor of a monarchy. Monarchists are in favor a royal family. They think that a King or a Queen should be the head of a state. Someone who holds the opposite view is called a republican.

Question 116

Moral anti-realism

Answer 116

Moral anti-realism is the view that moral values do not exist ontologically. Streams of moral anti-realism include Subjectivism and Noncognitivism.

Question 117

Moral anti-realist

Answer 117

A moral anti-realist is someone who believes that oral values do not exist ontologically.

Question 118

Moral realism

Answer 118

Moral realism is the view that moral values do exist ontologically. Streams of moral realism include Ethical Naturalism and Ethical Intuitionism.

Question 119

Moral realist

Answer 119

A moral realist is someone who believes that moral values do exist ontologically.

Question 120

Moral

Answer 120

If an action is moral then it is ethically good. A moral act implies that the agent of the action is aware that the action follows a moral norm ( See ‘Amoral’), this would be the view of a moral relativist.

Question 121

Multiplicity

Answer 121

The state of being manifold, many or numerous. The opposite of singularity. A plural state of many in number. Schopenhauer believed that the multiplicity of individual things ( and people) was limited to the phenomenal world and that the nominal worlds knows no multiplicity but is a singular reality (See ‘non-duality’).

Question 122

Mutual

Answer 122

If something is mutual then it is reciprocal, given and received, shared and common.

Question 123

Naïve realism

Answer 123

Naïve realism is the view that what exists, and how it exists is what is known by the senses. It is a denial ( active or passive) of metaphysics. It is the view of reality that most people have before they consider what may exist beyond sensory capacity.

Question 124

Natural rights

Answer 124

Natural rights are hypothetical rights that are thought to exist in a ste of nature. Thoughts concerning natural rights vary. Hobbes thought that natural rights involved survival of the strongest and the expense of the weakest - the rule of force. Rousseau thought that humans in a state of nature had natural rights to things like food, protection, property etc. His view stemmed from observing communities that had never been exposed to the corrupting influences of civilization. Natural rights (if they exist) are implicit rather then explicit. They are not written in a constitution.

Question 125

Necessary conditions

Answer 125

In causation, a necessary condition of an event means that a known cause must have happened to cause the event. However, the necessary cause of the event could aso cause a different event to the one that was observed. If the event is observed the necessary cause must be present. If the cause is observed, the event may follow, but not necessarily. ( See ‘Sufficient conditions’)

Question 126

Necessity

Answer 126

In causation, necessity describes a connection between an observed effect and a cause of the effect. A necessary cause mens that the presence of an observed effect implies that a necessary cause preceding it occurred. The effect means that the necessary cause was present. However, the mere presence of the cause does not mean that the effect will follow. ( See ‘causation’)

Question 127

Negative freedom

Answer 127

Negative freedom is the therm given to an absence of external restriction. This is the common view of freedom ( See ‘Positive freedom’)

Question 128

Nihilism

Answer 128

Nihilism is the view that the values by which people live are breaking down, disappearing or become less universal. Nihilism is the result of the breakdown of traditional or religious values. A moving away from dogma. A tendency for people to create their own values at they perceive them rather than accepting values that are imposed on them for reason’s of conformity or tradition.

Question 129

Non-duality

Answer 129

The idea that body, mind and all the material substance of the universe form a single unitary whole. All is one.

Question 130

Non-natural property

Answer 130

According to G.E. Moore, a non-natural property is a property that exists but does not exist in nature. Nature is what exists and is revealed to the senses as phenomena. Non-natural properties exist but are imperceptible to our sense organs. They can only be known through intuition. Moore claims that these properties nevertheless exist.

Question 131

Normative

Answer 131

If something is normative then it leads to a prescriptive value. A normative theory is a theory that describes a rule or a principle to live by or to act on.

Question 132

Noumenal world

Answer 132

The noumenal world is the part of existent reality that is beyond the range of our sensory ability. It is beyond the veil of Maya. It is full ontological reality as opposed to phenomenal reality that is limited to what we are able to perceive through our senses.

Question 133

Noumenon

Answer 133

A noumenon is a thing in itself, the form in which the thing exists ontologically. The term noumena was introduced by Kant to distinguish between things as they truly are in existence as opposed to phenomena of things as they appear to our senses physically. An existent object is both phenomenon and noumenon at the same time. The phenomenal qualities are contained within the noumenon but the full range of qualities of the noumenon cannot be perceived by the senses, only the phenomenal qualities can be sensed.

Question 134

Objectify

Answer 134

To objectify something is to make it more connected to factual substance. It is to ground it in empirical observation. To connect is to things that are real and existent. It also implies impartiality and the removal of bias.

Question 135

Ontologically

Answer 135

How something is ontologically is how it is in absolute reality both physically and meta-physically. It is the adverb form of ontology.

Question 136

Ontology

Answer 136

Ontology is the study of reality, of material or substantial existence, of things that exists in themselves, of what is real and what is not.

Question 137

Panopticon

Answer 137

The panopticon is a type of prison invented by Jeremy Bentham in line with his concept of consequentialism. The idea behind the panopticon was to create an environment to rehabilitate prisoners rather than merely punishing them for their crimes.

Question 138

Pantheism

Answer 138

Pantheism is the belief that everything that exists in the universe is God and God is in everything that exists in the universe. This view of the existence of God is a paradox, because it logically denies the existence of God as a distinct separate entity who is the creator of the universe. God created the universe which is God is the same as saying that God created God.

Question 139

Paradigm

Answer 139

A paradigm is a model that is typically representative. It is a showcase example, a framework or starting principle. point for reference.

Question 140

Paradigm shift

Answer 140

A paradigm shift is when a paradigm is replaced with a better one.

Question 141

Paradox

Answer 141

A paradox is a logical puzzle that defies our sense of empirical reality. They involve a contradiction of common sense yet are perfectly logical and valid. There are many examples perhaps the most famous example is the race between Achilles ant the tortoise. The athletic Achilles can never overtake the tortoise because with each attempt he has to cross the distance that the tortoise has travelled. If the tortoise doesn’t stop, then no matter how slow the tortoise is traveling, there will always be a distance between Achilles and the tortoise to cover and this will take an amount of time. During this time, the tortoise will have moved further.

Question 142

Perceptible

Answer 142

If something is perceptible. it can be perceived. It has the capacity of being sensed.

Question 143

Phenomenon

Answer 143

A phenomenon is a sensory apparition. It is a presentation of an object to the senses and its cognition, or capture within the mind that brings it to our conscious awareness. It is a sensing of an existent thing.

Question 144

Phenomenal world

Answer 144

The phenomenal world is the part of reality that reveals itself to our senses and is presented to our mind and our consciousness. It is a part of ontological reality ( See ‘Ontological’). It extends up to, but not beyond the veil of Maya.

Question 145

Phenomenalism

Answer 145

In epistemology and ontology, phenomenalism is a theory of perception put forward by Edmund Husseri. Is resolved a problem that existed between two conflicting theories of perception and how our perception is connected to what exists. Materialism regards external objects as being composed of existent substance; Idealism regards external objects as presentations to the mind from a non-material source of ideal forms. Phenomenalism combines the two theories. Materially existent objects are presented to the senses and are constructed in the mind as phenomena. This means that we cannot know the object in itself ontologically, but that its ontological material existence is the cause of the mental representation of the object that we receive through our senses and through the process of conception within the mind. ( See ‘Phenomena’ and ‘Noumena’)

Question 146

Phronesis

Answer 146

Phronesis is a classical Greek term meaning wisdom.

Question 147

Physical

Answer 147

A physical property is a natural property or a phenomenal property. The physical world is the world as it presents itself to our senses as opposed tot the ontological world as it is in itself independent of our sensory capacities. ( See ‘Metaphysical’)

Question 148

Positive freedom

Answer 148

Positive freedom is a term that describes the condition of someone who has control over their internal desires. They are free to make rational choices rather than impulsive choices that stem from urges and appetites. A freedom from the passion ( see ‘Negative freedom’)

Question 149

Pragmatic

Answer 149

If something is pragmatic then it is practical or has a practical application as its aim. A pragmatic solution is a solution that works in practice.

Question 150

Prescribe

Answer 150

To prescribe something is to define it is a model before it is made so that can be made or put into effect or implemented according to this prescriptive definition. The opposite of prescribe is describe.

Question 151

Prescriptive

Answer 151

If something is prescriptive, it involves defining the qualities of what will follow, be made, be implemented etc. It is the opposite of descriptive in which case something already exists and its properties are annotated or documented in a description. Here the description comes first and the manufacture follows. It is a description of something that will be, or is to be. Prescriptive ethics prescribes a desired pattern of behavior defined by a set of normative values.

Question 152

Primary qualities

Answer 152

According t the empiricists ( See ‘Empiricism) John Locke, objects have primary qualities and secondary qualities. Primary qualities are qualities that belong to the object. They are not imposed on the object by the process of conception. Primary qualities are thing like length, breath, height and mass. ( See ‘Extension’)

Question 153

Principlism

Answer 153

In applied ethics, principlism is the method of applying a normative principle to solve a practical ethical problem. Approaching the problem by principle. Alternative methods include casuistry and communitarianism.

Question 154

Proponent

Answer 154

If someone is a proponent of something then he or she is in favor of this something. Someone who advocates something.

Question 155

Propositional logic

Answer 155

Propositional logic analyzes the true / false values of propositional statements. Propositional logic is an important method for analyzing language and determining which words in language refer to existent things and which words possibly do not. It is a method of applying mathematical logic to linguistic meaning.

Question 156

Proposition

Answer 156

A proposition is an assertion, the meaning contained in a sentence. For example, ‘Buttercups are yellow’, ‘ranunculus font jaunts’, ‘Boterbloemen zijn geel’ and ‘Butterblumeen sind gelb’ are four sentences in different languages that contain the same proposition. They all assert the same thing. ‘There are yellow flowers called buttercups’ is a different sentence but contains the same propositional content.

Question 157

Rational

Answer 157

If something is rational it is deductive, analytical and often a priori. The rational process of inference does not rely on empirical sense experience. For example, all men are mortal, Socrates is a man, and therefore Socrates is mortal. The conclusion that Socrates is mortal is analytical and logical. The fact that Socrates is a man requires a posteriori empirical investigation. This is not inferred rationally. The fact that all men are mortal is an inductive fact based on repeated empirical observation. If something is rational, it is logical, mathematical, and analytical.

Question 158

Reductionism

Answer 158

A movement that believes that hugely complex processes and phenomena can be reduced systematically to simple core phenomena and processes. Descartes believed that animals were automata and that their bodies were deterministic biological machines with no free will. Their complex biological systems could be reduced to simple chemical, cellular or electrical processes that were mechanistic.

Question 159

Redundant

Answer 159

If something is redundant then it no longer has a purposeful use. It is unnecessary. If someone is made redundant, then they lose their job not because they have functioned poorly, but because the function is no longer necessary.

Question 160

Rehabilitation

Answer 160

Rehabilitation is a restorative process. To rehabilitate something ( or someone) is to return a damaged something to its previously undamaged state, to correct it. Social rehabilitation is the function of the prison system.

Question 161

Republican

Answer 161

A republican is someone who does not believe that a sovereign state should be ruled by a monarchy.

Question 162

Revelation

Answer 162

A revelation is an insight, an access to knowledge, an intuition that is extra-sensory. It does not stem from empirical or rational sources. A revelation is known directly through intuition or by gnosis. ( See ‘Gnostic knowledge’)

Question 163

Salvation

Answer 163

Salvation is the Jewish, Christian and Muslim concept of being saved. The achievement of eternal life of the soul in heaven.

Question 164

Savagery

Answer 164

Savagery is the concept of animalistic, wild, uncontrolled behavior.

Question 165

Sceptic

Answer 165

A sceptic is someone who doubts and does not easily believe.

Question 166

Scepticism

Answer 166

Scepticism is a philosophical movement that promotes doubt in order to gain better knowledge. A permanent attitude of doubt is an important method of combating the problem of induction. ( See ‘Induction’). It is a sustained delay in acknowledging affirming the truth of a matter.

Question 167

Secondary qualities

Answer 167

According to the empiricist ( See ‘empiricism) John Locke, objects have primary qualities and secondary qualities. Secondary qualities are qualities that do not belong to an object. They are imposed on the object by the process of conception. They are created by the interaction of the sense organs and the mind. Secondary qualities are things like colour, smell and taste.

Question 168

Secularism

Answer 168

The belief that government and politics should be separate and free from religious involvement.

Question 169

Self interest

Answer 169

Self interest is that which is to the benefit of the self. Self interest is an important concept in Rousseau’s contract theory and in ethical egoism.

Question 170

Sense experience

Answer 170

Sense experience is experience and knowledge derived from the senses. Experience acquired via the sense organs ( See ‘Empiricism’)

Question 171

Shackles

Answer 171

Iron bindings of the hands and feet that are used to restrict the movements of prisoners and slaves.

Question 172

Sorites

Answer 172

A logical puzzle whereby the predicate of a proposition becomes the subject of the next proposition in a long chain of propositions, In simpler terms, sorites is a problem of ‘indistinct categories’. We tend to think of things belonging to distinct classes, groups or categories, however, when we take a closer look we often find that the boundary between one thing and the other thing is either unclear or cannot be defined at all. It is not distinct. At what precise point does yellow become red? At what point is a fertilized egg a human being, or a species of animal in evolution a new species of animal?

Question 173

Sovereign

Answer 173

The ruler of a territory. The supreme authority with governing control over a sovereignty. A sovereign can be a monarch or a political administration.

Question 174

Sovereignty

Answer 174

The territory of a sovereign or of a sovereign state. The territory contained within a sovereignty is the territory over which the sovereign can rule.

Question 175

Subjective

Answer 175

If something is subjective then the truth of it is determined by a perceiving subject. In other words, the truth value can be found in the observer and is not a property of the object.

Question 176

Subjectivistic

Answer 176

If something is subjectivistic, then it relates to inherent properties and qualities within a subject. In ethics this would mean that morality is governed by internal qualities of individual subjects rather than the quality of actions of their consequences ( See ‘Theory Subjectivism’)

Question 177

Sufficiency

Answer 177

In causation, sufficiency describes a connection between an observed effect and a cause of the effect. A sufficient cause means that the presence of the sufficient cause is enough to produce the observed effect. however, the mere presence of the effect does not mean that the sufficient cause created it. ( See ‘Causation’)

Question 178

Sufficient conditions

Answer 178

In causation, a sufficient condition is enough to cause a connected event that follows the condition, however, the mere presence of this connected event does not imply that this sufficient cause created it, it could have been another unknown cause that caused the event. ( See ‘Necessary conditions’)

Question 179

Superstructure

Answer 179

In construction, a superstructure is that which has been built on a foundation. ( See ‘Foundationalism’). In Foundationalism it is all the knowledge that is supported by the underlying knowledge base.

Question 180

Synthesis

Answer 180

A synthesis is one part of a three part dialectical process ( See ‘Dialectic’). The synthesis is the outcome of a conflict between a thesis and its antithesis. The tension between thesis and antithesis leads to a new position, the synthesis, which includes elements of the original thesis as well as elements of the critical reaction to this thesis in the form of the antithesis.

Question 181

Synthetic

Answer 181

If something is synthetic it is generative. In other words, it generates something new.

Question 182

Tabula rasa

Answer 182

Tabula Rasa is the Latin term for blank slate. It stems from the empiricist philosophy of John Lock who believed that humans are born with a blank slate. This means that they are born without experience, notions or concepts but slowly acquire such knowledge through empirical sense experience.

Question 183

Tangibility

Answer 183

The tangibility of something is extent to which this something is tangible.

Question 184

Tangible

Answer 184

A tangible substance is a substance that has the property of being perceived or touched. Its existence is visibly evident and real.

Question 185

Teleological

Answer 185

If something is teleological it has been made or designed for a goal or a purpose. There is intention behind it. It has an end.

Question 186

Temporality

Answer 186

The temporality of something is the extent to which it is governed by time. A temporal existence is a finite existence limited in time.

Question 187

Thesis

Answer 187

A thesis is one part of a three part dialectical process (See ‘Dialectic’). A thesis is claim or an assertion about something. An initial argument with a proposition (See ‘Entry’).

Question 188

Tragedy of the commons

Answer 188

The tragedy of the commons is a paradigm scenario that illustrated the conflict between individual interests and common interests. It shows that common interests are vitally more important to individuals than their individual interests. Common interests are important to secure long term interest of the individual and the community of individuals.

Question 189

Transgress

Answer 189

To transgress something is to cross a boundary, to break a rule, defy law. A transgression is a singe incident of rule breaking.

Question 190

Trickle down effect

Answer 190

In economic theory, the trickle down effect is the belief that when money is poured into the top segment of the economy, that an increase in the wealth of the richer members of society will trickle down to the poorer sections of society. It is the view that a surplus of income will generate an increase in spending that will boost manufacturing and service industries to the benefit of society as a whole. The trickle down effect is a theory of wealth distribution. It relies on the spending of surplus income as opposed to an increase in the tendency to save.

Question 191

Tyrannical

Answer 191

Tyrannical is a term that means fierce, terrible, cruel, powerfully resolute or iron fisted behavior. It is the manner in which a tyrant rules, a powerful and feared dictator.

Question 192

Übermensch

Answer 192

The German term Übermensch translate as Superman. It is Nietzsche’s term for a person with a will to power, a self defining individual full of vitality and life assertion. Someone who is not limited by the pseudo morality of the weak. A person who is not afraid to live life to the full and to their maximum potential.

Question 193

Undifferentiated

Answer 193

If something is undifferentiated then it does not posses any distinguishing features or qualities that make it different to other things. Undifferentiated things are the same things. If something is undifferentiated it has a singular identity (See ‘Multiplicity’).

Question 194

Universal

Answer 194

If something is universal it is the same, or applies in the same way everywhere.

Question 195

Universal maxim

Answer 195

A maxim is an implicit rational statement contained in an action. It is the assertion of the action. A universal maxim is such a statement that can be applied universally. Some maxims would be impractical if they were applied universally.

Question 196

Universalizability test

Answer 196

The universalizability test is the act of testing whether or not a maxim is a universal maxim or a maxim that would not be practical if it were applied universally. If a maxim passes this universalizability test, then the action that contains the maxim is a moral act.

Question 197

Universally

Answer 197

Universally is an adverb that assigns the property of universality. If something applies universally, it applies everywhere and in all cases.

Question 198

Veil of Maya

Answer 198

The veil of Maya is the dividing line between the phenomenal world that we can perceive with our senses and the metaphysical world that we are unable to perceive empirically. It is a division in ontology between what we can know and what we are unable to know.

Question 199

Vice

Answer 199

In virtue ethics, a vice is a negative personal quality, characteristic, habit or tendency. The opposite of a vice is a virtue.

Question 200

Virtue

Answer 200

In virtue ethics, a virtue is a positive personal quality, characteristic, habit or tendency. The opposite of a virtue is a vice. Virtues are positioned between two vices. The definition of what constitutes a virtue is subjective. Virtues are a matter of balance (See ‘Golden mean’).

Question 201

Zeitgeist

Answer 201

Zeitgeist is a German term meaning ‘Spirit of age’ or ‘Mind of age’. It is the mental or spiritual achievement, and contextual framework for existence, of a Nation or community of people at a particular time in history. Geist is developmental, purposive and teleological. Zeitgeist is the Geist at a particular point in time. It is an important concept in the philosophy of Hegel (See ‘Historical dialecticism’ and ‘Geist’).