Approaches (Paper 2)

Question 1

Who is the father of Psychology

Answer 1

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is known as the ‘Father of Psychology’ as he moved psychology away from its philosophical roots to controlled research. He set up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig, Germany, in the 1870s. Wundt also founded the Institute of Experimental Psychology and published one of the first books on psychology, helping to establish the subject as an independent branch of science.

Question 2

What method did Wundt develop

Answer 2

Wundt developed a scientific method to study mental processes, such as the structure of sensation and perception. He called this method introspection.

Question 3

What is Introspection

Answer 3

Introspection is a systematic analysis of our own conscious experiences of a stimuli. An experience is examined in terms of its component parts e.g. sensations, feelings, images etc.

Question 4

What did Wundt claim about training an individual’s conscious mental processes

Answer 4

Wundt claimed that with sufficient training an individual’s conscious mental processes, such as perception, could be objectively reported by the individual as they occurred. For example, Wundt would ask people to focus on an everyday object (such as a metronome) and encourage them to look inwards and reflect on the sensations, feelings and the images that came to mind. This information could then be used to gain insight into the mental processes involved in perception

Question 5

Where was Introspection used

Answer 5

Introspection was used in highly controlled studies. The use of controlled environments enabled Wundt to establish general theories about mental processes. His work paved the way for later controlled research and the study of mental processes e.g. by cognitive psychologists. However, Wundt later identified higher mental processes (such as learning, language, emotions, etc.) that could not be studied in a strictly controlled manner.

Question 6

What did Wundt’s work lead to

Answer 6

Wundt’s work led to the development of the field of cultural psychology, based on general trends in behaviour of groups of people

Question 7

Strengths of Emergence of Psychology as a Science

Answer 7

Wundt was the first to open a laboratory designated to the scientific study of psychological enquiry under controlled conditions facilitating accurate measurements and replication.

Wundt was the first psychologist to focus on understanding the psychological processes of perception etc. rather than philosophical or biological processes.

Wundt later recognised that higher mental processes were difficult to study using his procedures and this encouraged others to look for more appropriate methods and techniques, paving the way for approaches such as brain scanning techniques.

Question 8

Weaknesses of Emergence of Psychology as a Science

Answer 8

Many modern psychologists argue that early behaviourists (e.g. Pavlov) made a greater contribution to the development of psychology as a science than Wundt did. They produced reliable findings, which Wundt did not, with explanatory principles that were generalisable – much more in keeping with the scientific approach.

Question 9

Strengths of Introspection

Answer 9

Focus on mental processes through introspection can be seen as the forerunner of the cognitive approach.

Introspection is still sometimes used in modern scientific psychological research (e.g. Csikszentmihalyi & Hunter, 2003), and in areas such as therapy and studying emotional states. This demonstrates its value as one way mental processes can be investigated.

Question 10

Weaknesses of Introspection

Answer 10

Studies using introspection may not be valid. Many psychologists would argue that several aspects of our mind are outside of our conscious awareness (e.g. research by Nisbett & Wilson, 1977) and so cannot be reported by an individual.

Question 11

Behaviourist Approach Key Assumptions

Answer 11

• Concerned with observable behaviour that can be objectively and scientifically measured.
• All behaviour is learned from the environment and can be reduced to a stimulus-response association.
• There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and non-human animals. Therefore, research can be carried out on animals as well as humans.

Question 12

Classical Conditioning

Answer 12

The behaviourist approach suggests that all behaviour is learnt rather than being innate or inherited from parents. One way in which behaviour can be learned is via classical conditioning, which is learning through association. A stimulus produces the same response as another stimulus because they have been consistently presented at the same time.

Question 13

Operant Conditioning

Answer 13

The basic idea behind Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938) is that organisms spontaneously produce different behaviours and these behaviours produce consequences for that organism. Some of these consequences may be positive and some may be negative. If the consequence of a behaviour is positive then the behaviour is likely to be repeated. If the consequence is negative then the behaviour is much less likely to be repeated.

Question 14

Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Answer 14

Operant conditioning is different to classical conditioning. Responses are reinforced in operant conditioning but not in classical conditioning. Classical conditioning explains the acquisition of a response (e.g. a phobia) while operant conditioning explains the maintenance of a response.

Question 15

Strengths of the Behaviourist Approach

Answer 15

The behaviourist approach enhanced the scientific status of Psychology by using strict scientific methods, being objective, and producing verifiable findings.

The behaviourist approach has developed laws and principles that have enabled psychologists to predict and control behaviour. However, it also raises ethical concerns because the approach could be used to control people against their wishes.

The behaviourist approach has led to several useful treatments such as systematic desensitisation (classical conditioning) and token economy (operant conditioning). However, focusing solely on behaviour neglects the whole person. Treatments using conditioning do not get to the root cause of a patient’s problem, and so it is likely that when the therapy has ended the patient will return to their original behaviour.

Question 16

Weaknesses of the Behaviourist Approach

Answer 16

The behaviourist approach is environmentally reductionist because it focuses on a lower level of explanation than other approaches. Stimulus-response associations lack meaning when attempting to explain complex human behaviours, such as attachment. The behaviourist approach is also environmentally deterministic. According to behaviourism, human behaviour is entirely determined by the environment, there is no account taken of a person’s free will to decide how to behave.

The behaviourist approach has been criticised because it uses non-human animals. Critics claim this tells us little about human behaviour because humans have cognitive factors and emotional states that influence their behaviour.

Question 17

Social Learning Theory Key Assumptions

Answer 17

Behaviour is learned through experience, specifically through observation and imitation within a social context.

Question 18

Social Learning Theory Model

Answer 18

Modelling, Imitation, Identification, Vicarious Reinforcement and Mediational Processes

Question 19

Modelling

Answer 19

In order for social learning to take place models must carry out the behaviour to be learnt. A live model could be a parent, teacher or peer. A symbolic model could be someone in the media.

Question 20

Imitation

Answer 20

A lot of the behaviour people acquire is learnt though copying (imitating) the behaviour that is modelled by others.

Question 21

Identification

Answer 21

We are more likely to imitate the behaviour of a model who we admire or who is similar to us in some way (e.g. same age and gender). In order to identify with the model, observers must feel that they are similar enough to the model that if they performed the same behaviour, the consequence would be the same for them as it was for the model.

Question 22

Vicarious Reinforcement

Answer 22

Individuals learn by observing the behaviour of others and the reward and punishment they receive. People to not need to experience rewards or punishments directly in order to learn from them. People may learn behaviours, but not perform them because they have also learned that the behaviour is likely to be punished if displayed.

Question 23

Mediational Processes

Answer 23

Attention, Retention, Motivation and Motor Reproduction

Question 24

Attention

Answer 24

First the observer must pay attention to the model (attend to their actions)

Question 25

Retention

Answer 25

Secondly the observer must be capable of retention (remember the behaviour that has been modelled).

Question 26

Motivation

Answer 26

Thirdly the observer must be motivated to imitate the behaviour (because they want the same reward the model received.

Question 27

Motor Reproduction

Answer 27

Finally the observer must consider themselves to be physically and psychologically capable of reproducing the behaviour. People can learn a behaviour but still not reproduce it because they are not motivated to, or they are not capable of that behaviour.

Question 28

Bandura (1961) Procedure

Answer 28

Bandura conducted a study involving 36 male and 36 female children aged 3-7years of age. The children had to observe a model acting either aggressively or non aggressively with a bobo doll. Some of the children saw a same-sex model, others saw a different sex model. In the experimental conditions the model displayed aggressive acts towards the bobo doll such as striking it with a mallet and shouting “POW!”. After the children observed these aggressive acts, they were made to feel frustrated. They were shown attractive toys but told they were not allowed to play with them. The children (one by one) were then taken to a room which had some toys including a bobo doll. The children were observed for 20 minutes.

Question 29

Bandura (1961) Findings

Answer 29

The results found that the children who observed the aggressive model reproduced the same aggressive behaviour towards the bobo doll, whereas the children who observed the non-aggressive model, showed no aggression to the bobo doll. 33% of children who observed and heard verbal aggression repeated what they had seen and heard. However 0% of children in the non aggressive group displayed verbal aggression. Boys were more aggressive than girls, and imitation of aggression was greatest when the model was the same gender as the observer (identification

Question 30

Strengths of Social Learning Theory

Answer 30

Social learning theory recognises the importance of both behavioural and cognitive factors (mediational processes) when examining how people learn new behaviours, unlike the behaviourist approach (classical and operant conditioning).

Question 31

Weaknesses of Social Learning Theory

Answer 31

Mediational factors have to be inferred so we cannot measure the extent of their influence. SLT does not try to explain mediational processes, it leaves this to cognitive psychologists.

Social learning theory can be criticised because it does not take into account cause and effect. Studies have found that young people who have deviant attitudes seek out peers with similar attitudes, rather than becoming deviant because of their peers.

Social learning theory sees behaviour as environmentally determined and so ignores the role of biology in behaviour. However, Bandura (1961) found in his experiment that boys were more aggressive than girls, regardless of the experimental situation they were in. Boys might be more aggressive because of the hormone testosterone which means it is biologically determined.

Social learning theory is able to explain behaviours such as aggression, but not so able to explain the learning of abstract notions, e.g. fairness, justice etc. which cannot be observed directly.

Question 32

The Cognitive Approach Key Assumptions

Answer 32

• Psychology should be the study of internal mental processes, e.g. memory, perception etc.
• The importance of the role of schema.
• It is appropriate to make inferences about cognitive processes
• The use of models of explanation – theoretical and computer models.
• Possibility of combining cognitive processes and biological structures (cognitive neuroscience)

Question 33

The Role of Models in Cognitive Psychology

Answer 33

Making inferences means going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed. Theoretical models in cognitive psychology (such as the multi-store model of memory) are simplified representations based on current research evidence. Models are often pictorial in nature, represented by boxes and arrows that indicate cause and effect in mental processes. Models are often incomplete and are frequently updated. For example, the Working Memory Model was first proposed in 1974, but a fourth component was added in 2000.

Question 34

Real life Models in Cognitive Psychology

Answer 34

Cognitive psychologists have also made use of computer models to explain mental processes. Using computers as an analogy, information is inputted through the senses, coded into memory and then combined with previously stored information. Computer models are often used to explain memory, long-term memory is like a hard-disk and RAM is like working memory. Like working memory, RAM, is cleared and reset when a task has been carried out.

Question 35

The Role of Schema

Answer 35

Schema are mental representations of experience, knowledge and understanding. They help organise and interpret information in the brain. For example, schema for specific events are based on expectations of how to behave in a different situation (e.g. a restaurant or a classroom) or in different roles (e.g. as a prison guard or a student). Schema are useful because they help us predict what will happen in our world based on our previous experiences. Schema also enable us to process vast amounts of information rapidly. Finally, schema prevent us from becoming overwhelmed by environmental stimuli. However, schema can distort our interpretation of sensory information. Schema could also lead to perceptual errors or inaccurate memories. They can cause biased recall as we see what we expect. Negative or faulty schema may have a negative impact on mental health (e.g. the negative triad).

Question 36

Cognitive Neuroscience

Answer 36

Cognitive and biological processes can be integrated, leading to a discipline known as cognitive neuroscience. This is the scientific study of the neurological structures, mechanisms, processes and chemistry which are responsible for our thinking processes.

Question 37

Applications of Cognitive Neuroscience

Answer 37

There are practical applications of cognitive neuroscience. Brain imaging techniques such as Position Emission Tomography (PET) and Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) have been used to locate different types of memory in different areas of the brain, for instance episodic memories are in the hippocampus, semantic memories are in the temporal lobe, and procedural memories are in the cerebellum. This has led to more effective treatments for memory disorders.

Question 38

Strengths of the Cognitive Approach

Answer 38

The cognitive approach emphasises scientific methods such as laboratory experiments when collecting data. This means that high levels of control can be exercised in these settings and cause and effects relationships can be identified. However, laboratory experiments can be criticised for lacking ecological validity. The focus on detail of exactly what can be recalled by participants in controlled environments means an understanding of the everyday use of memory is missing from explanations.

Cognitive psychology has also been used to explain the development of negative schema which can aid our understanding of mental illnesses like depression.

The cognitive approach has also had a vast influence on the development of therapies in Psychology. For instance cognitive behavioural therapy aims to change negative thoughts into more positive thoughts to help treat depression.

Question 39

Weaknesses Tof the Cognitive Approach

Answer 39

The cognitive approach uses computer models. Phrases like storage and retrieval are taken directly from computing. However, there is an important difference between the sort of information processing that takes place within a computer programme and the processing that takes place in the human mind. Computers do not make mistakes, or ignore available information, or forget what has been stored on their hard drives. Humans, on the other hand, do all of these things.

The approach can be seen as mechanical in regarding human thinking as processing like the computer leaving little room for the irrationality often seen in emotional behaviours.

Question 40

The Biological Approach Key Assumptions

Answer 40

• Behaviour has evolved through evolutionary adaptation.
• The genes an individual possesses influence their behaviour.
• The biological examination of animals can provide useful information about human behaviour.
• Biological structures and neurochemistry control and influence our reactions to the environment.

Question 41

Evolution

Answer 41

According to Charles Darwin, our behaviour has adapted and changed over time through natural selection. This is where profitable behaviours are selected in mates and therefore reproduced. Over time, advantageous behaviours will continue which will continually increase our ability to survive

Question 42

The Influence of Genetics

Answer 42

Heredity refers to the idea that characteristics are ‘passed on’ from one generation to the next through our genetics. These characteristics can be physical (e.g. height and hair colour) or psychological (e.g. intelligence and predisposition to mental illness).

Question 43

How to examine the Influence of Genetics

Answer 43

To examine the extent to which genes influence behaviour, work is often carried out on pairs of twins. These studies often involve comparing the likelihood of a behaviour/disorder occurring in identical twins (who are 100% genetically similar) to the likelihood of the behaviour/disorder occurring among non-identical twins (who are 50% genetically similar). If the MZ twins show a higher concordance rate (shared behaviour) then there is argued to be a genetic component. It is very rare, however, that the concordance rate for MZ twins is 100%. This suggests that, although there may be a genetic influence, some behaviours could
be a mix of both genetics and environment.

Question 44

Genotype

Answer 44

Refers to the genes an individual possesses i.e. an individual’s genetic make-up.

Question 45

Phenotype

Answer 45

Refers to the observable traits/characteristics shown by an individual that are due to the combined effect of genes and environment.

Question 46

Biological Structures

Answer 46

The Nervous System is divided into:
The Central Nervous System: This comprises of the brain and spinal cord which act as the centre from which the individual is controlled e.g. through the cognitive processing of the brain.

The Peripheral Nervous System: This comprises of the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system comprises the muscles attached to the skeleton and is therefore pivotal for movement. The autonomic nervous system oversees bodily organs and is involved in the fight or flight response

Question 47

The Endocrine System

Answer 47

The endocrine system maintains levels of hormones in the blood that are released by glands. The most important gland is the pituitary gland which is located in the brain. This is sometimes called the master gland because it instructs the other glands in the body to secrete hormones when necessary.

Question 48

Neurotransmitters

Answer 48

Neurons (cells in the nervous system) communicate with each other by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters. Biological psychologists argue that neurotransmitter levels can affect the behaviour of an individual (e.g. low serotonin levels have been linked to depression).

Question 49

Hormones

Answer 49

Hormones are released as part of the endocrine system through glands. Biological psychologists argue that hormone levels in the system can affect the behaviour of an individual (e.g. high testosterone levels have been linked to aggressive behaviour).

Question 50

Strengths of the Biological Approach

Answer 50

The biological approach uses the scientific method, particularly the use of the experimental method, as its main source of investigation. Experimental studies take place in highly controlled environments so that other researchers are able to replicate research studies under the same experimental conditions, thus adding to the reliability of the research.

The biological approach has practical applications. For example, knowledge about the neurochemical imbalance in depression (low serotonin) has led to the development of drug treatments (SSRIs), which correct this imbalance.

If people know they have a genetic predisposition for a mental disorder, such as schizophrenia, this gives them an opportunity to avoid environmental situations likely to trigger this predisposition or to develop coping skills that would protect them from its potential influence.

Question 51

Weaknesses of the Biological Approach

Answer 51

The biological approach is biologically reductionist. Reductionism is the belief that complex human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into its smallest component parts, such as the action of genes, neurotransmitters and hormones. Critics argue that we cannot fully understand behaviour without taking account of all the different factors which influence it. These include cognitive, emotional and cultural factors, all of which have a significant influence on behaviour.

Recent studies suggesting a genetic basis for criminal behaviour has led to concerns about how this information could be used. It could lead to genetic screening of populations to identify genetic susceptibilities and subsequent discrimination against those with a genetic predisposition to crime.

Question 52

Psychodynamic Approach Key Assumptions

Answer 52

• The driving force behind our behaviour is the unconscious mind.
• Instincts and drives motivate our behaviour.
• Early childhood is pivotal in making us the person we are

Question 53

The Role of the Unconscious

Answer 53

Freud believed that there are three levels to the mind. The conscious mind contains the thoughts, feelings and memories that a person is currently aware of. The preconscious mind contains the thoughts, feelings and memories that a person could access if they wanted to. However, Freud argued that the largest part of the mind is inaccessible. He referred to this as the unconscious mind.

Question 54

Freuds belief about actions and behaviours

Answer 54

Freud believed that most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but are the product of the unconscious mind, which reveals itself in slips of the tongue (Freudian slips), in creativity and in neurotic symptoms. The mind actively prevents traumatic thoughts, feelings and memories in the mind from reaching the conscious mind because they would cause the person anxiety if they did. During psychoanalysis, the therapist (known as the psychoanalyst) tries to access the unconscious mind of their patients using free association and dream interpretation.

Question 55

Hypnosis

Answer 55

As well as dream analysis, as part of Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, he also believed that hypnosis was another way to study the unconscious mind and the conflicts that might be due to childhood trauma. Contrary to popular belief, hypnosis is not a state of deep sleep. It does involve the induction of a trance-like condition, but when in it, the patient is actually in an enhanced state of awareness, concentrating entirely on the hypnotist’s voice. In this state, the conscious mind is suppressed and the unconscious/subconscious mind is revealed.

Overall, Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis – a talking therapy which involves: hypnosis, free association, dream analysis and projective testing (such as ink blot test) – the whole point of psychoanalysis is to reduce the anxieties rather than ‘cure’ them.

Question 56

Drives

Answer 56

Freud believed that we are born with two basic drives – sex and aggression. These motivate all our thoughts and behaviours. He referred to these as ‘eros’ and ‘thanatos’. Eros represents the life instinct, sex being the major driving force in human nature. Sex is, of course, vital for reproduction and therefore has its own source of psychic energy – libido. The second drive, the death instinct (characterized by a drive towards aggression), allows us to procreate while at the same time eliminating our enemies, who may try to prevent us doing so.

Question 57

The tripartite personality

Answer 57

Personality has a tripartite structure (e.g. it made up of three part), the Id, the Ego and the Superego. Experience and conflicts in childhood shape the development of the three parts of personality, affecting how a person behaves

Question 58

The Id

Answer 58

The id is formed between birth and 18 months of age. It is in the unconscious mind. The id focuses on the self (selfish), and is irrational and emotional. It deals with feelings and needs, and seeks pleasure. It operates on the pleasure principle.

Question 59

The Ego

Answer 59

The ego is formed from around 18 months until 3 years of age. It is in the conscious mind. It is rational and obtains a balance between the id and the superego. It operates on the reality principle.

Question 60

The Superego

Answer 60

The superego is formed between 3 and 6 years of age. It is in the unconscious mind. The superego acts as a conscience or moral guide based on parental and societal values. It operates on the morality principle

Question 61

Repression

Answer 61

Repression is the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts. However, these repressed thoughts continue to influence behaviour. For example, a person who is abused as a child may not remember the abuse but could still have trouble forming adult relationships.

Question 62

Displacement

Answer 62

Displacement occurs when the focus of a strong emotion (e.g. anger) is expressed on an alternative person or object. For example, a student who has been given a detention by their teacher might kick their locker.

Question 63

Denial

Answer 63

Denial is the refusal to accept reality to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with a traumatic situation. For example, an alcoholic may deny that they have a drinking problem.

Question 64

Psychosexual Stages

Answer 64

There are five stages of psychosexual development which occur in a fixed sequence. These stages are: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital.

Question 65

Oral Stage (0 -1 years)

Answer 65

This stage starts from birth, when the mouth is the primary focus of libidinal energy (expressed through nursing and ‘mouthing’ objects). A child who is frustrated at this stage and thus becomes fixated may develop an adult personality that is characterized by pessimism, envy and suspicion (the ‘oral aggressive’ character). The over indulged oral receptive character is optimistic, gullible and full of admiration for others around him. In effect an ‘oral’ personality may end up with an addiction in the form of smoking or drinking.

Question 66

Anal Stage (1 – 3 years)

Answer 66

The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining faeces. This represents a conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion of bodily wastes, and the ego, which represents external pressures to control bodily functions. Fixation in this stage occurs if the parents are too lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of an anal expulsive character who is disorganized, thoughtless and defiant. Conversely, a child may opt to retain faeces, thereby spiting his parents, and may then develop into anal retentive character who is neat, a perfectionist, stingy and obstinate.

Question 67

Phallic Stage (3-5 years)

Answer 67

During this stage, boys develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother and become rivals with their father for her affection. They develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings (castration anxiety) so decide to identify with him rather than fight with him. As a result, the boy develops masculine characteristics and represses his sexual feelings towards his mother. This is known as the Oedipus complex. (remember – all this sexual feelings are repressed but the Id will occasionally bring out these feelings to the conscious making the child feel anxious and guilty).Girls go through a similar conflict, developing unconscious sexual attraction to their father (referred to by neo-Freudians as the Electra complex). Girls also develop ‘penis envy’ and believe that their mother castrated them at birth so have negative feelings toward their mother. Freud believed that the resolution of this female conflict comes much later and is never truly complete. However, young girls eventually replace their wish of a penis to a wish for a baby.

Eventually, for both boys and girls, they end up overcoming their conflicts and ‘identify with the same sex parent’. Hence girls become like their mothers and boys like their father.

Question 68

Latent Stage (6- 12 years (puberty))

Answer 68

The latency period is not a psychosexual stage of development but a period in which the sexual drive lies dormant. It is also in this stage where boys and girls will be quite distinct from each other. Girls will become more ‘feminine’ and boys more ‘masculine’. Freud saw latency as a period of unparalleled repression of sexual desires and erogenous impulses.

Question 69

Genital stage (12 years - puberty onwards)

Answer 69

The genital stage begins at the start of puberty, when sexual urges are once again awakened. Interest now turns to heterosexual relationships. The less energy the child has still invested in unresolved conflicts in the earlier stages, the greater their capacity will be to develop normal relationships with the opposite sex. Fixation in this stage may lead to a person struggling to form heterosexual relationships.

Question 70

Psychodynamic approach advantages

Answer 70

1. This approach uses the case study method to gather data and evidence. The case study method is rich in detail and allows us to develop the theory through the richness of the data provided. For example, if we look at the case study of Little Hans and Anna O – we get to understand the cases in detail such as why Little Han’s had a phobia and how it could be related to the Phallic Stage of psychosexual development.
2. The psychodynamic approach was also the first to suggest how childhood is important in determining our adult behaviour something which the other approaches do not emphasise on. For example how a child who becomes anally fixated, ends up with a certain type of personality as an adult.
3. The psychodynamic approach – especially Freud’s theory is unique which therefore allows to understand the complexity of human behaviour. For example how the ego uses defence mechanisms to justify actions. For example, it is ok to take your anger out onto someone or something else (displacement) to reduce your own anxiety.
4. The psychodynamic approach also created psychoanalysis – a very deep and meaningful therapy for neurosis (e.g. anxiety disorders, depression, phobias) where therapists try to understand the underlying causes of these disorders through hypnosis, dream therapy and free association. Research has shown psychoanalysis to be extremely successful in treating many disorders compared to other therapies (Tschuschke et al., 2007)

Question 71

Psychodynamic approach disadvantages

Answer 71

1. The abstract concepts such as the ID, EGO and SUPEREGO, are difficult to test since they are unconscious. For example, you can’t physically prove that there is such a thing as ID, EGO and SUPEREGO. You can’t actually see this in a person’s body or brain.
2. The psychodynamic approach especially Freud’s theory was criticised as being sexist. As he places a lot of emphasis on the ‘oedipal complex’, thus suggesting that girls do not experience the same feelings of guilt as boys. For example, his study on Little Hans (a boy) is only relevant to how boys feel about their mothers. But, what about girls? This therefore suggests that boys are morally superior to girls because they experience more guilt during the phallic stage of development
3. The Psychodynamic approach – especially Freud’s theory tends to lack falsifiability as you cannot prove it wrong. This then prevents the theory from being scientific since there is very less research evidence to support his theory. For example, you can’t prove that your adult personality is a result of experiences in childhood. Also, the idea of defence mechanisms are not falsifiable, for example, if you say to an individual that they were sexually attracted to their opposite sex parent in the anal stage of development in their childhood, they would probably say, ‘this is ludicrous’ – you could then say they are in denial!
4. The psychodynamic approach is based on psychic determinism – for example, Freud believed, in relation to human behaviour, that there was no such thing as an accident. Even something as trivial as describing your partner’s new outfit as ‘fattening’ rather than ‘flattering’ is driven by an unconscious force and has a deep significant meaning. The psychodynamic approach explains all behaviours, even accidents as determined by unconscious conflicts which we have no control over thus suggesting that we have no free will in anything we do because it is all somehow determined by our unconscious mind.

Question 72

Humanistic Approach Key Assumptions

Answer 72

• Psychology should study the whole person given that everyone is unique.
• People have free will to make their own decisions in life.
• The scientific method is too objective because the methods employed fail to acknowledge the subjective experience of the individual.

Question 73

Free will

Answer 73

Humanistic psychology is quite different in this aspect in that human beings are essentially self-determining and have free-will. This does not mean that people are not affected by external or internal influences but we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development. In other words, free will means that we have a choice in what actions and behaviours we carry out. (e.g. I choose to eat cereal rather than toast in the morning).

For this reason, humanistic psychologists tend to reject scientific models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour. As active agents we are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective (individual) experience rather than general laws. This is often referred to as a ‘person centred approach’ in psychology.

Question 74

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Answer 74

A person’s most basic physiological needs are represented at the bottom of the pyramid and the most advanced needs are at the top. People are motivated to achieve progression through the levels, each level must be fulfilled before a person can move up to a higher need. Maslow believed that the more basic the need the more powerfully it is experienced and the more difficult it is to ignore.

Question 75

Physiological Needs

Answer 75

The base of Maslow’s hierarchy is physiological needs – those required for human survival, including food, water and sleep. These needs are fundamental and if they are not met, it is unlikely that anything above this in the hierarchy will be pursued.

Question 76

Safety

Answer 76

The second level in the hierarchy refers to safety needs. This includes physical safety from environmental disasters such as earthquakes, as well as psychological safety. For example, an individual who believes that they are being stalked, may feel unsafe most of the time.

Question 77

Belonginess and Love Needs

Answer 77

The third level is the need for love and belongingness, in the form of acceptance from family, friends or partners.

Question 78

Esteem Needs

Answer 78

The fourth level of the hierarchy is esteem needs: Maslow conceptualised this as the need to feel good about oneself, and to establish a sense of competence and achievement - at work, at school or even as a person. For example, a worker who is made redundant or who has recently retired may experience a threat to his/her self-esteem (self-worth) needs.

Question 79

Self Actualisation

Answer 79

The first four levels of the hierarchy were referred to as ‘deficiency needs’ by Maslow. If these were not met, Maslow believed that we would experience this as having something important missing in our lives.

The final and top level of the hierarchy is different to the others and is referred to as a ‘being’ need. Maslow believed that each individual has the desire for personal; fulfilment, which he called self-actualisation. Self-actualisation is defined personally and can be pursued in many different ways – for example, through work, sport, artistic or musical achievement.

Question 80

The Self

Answer 80

This is your concept of you and how you perceive yourself and is based on how much self-worth you think you have (it is also the basis of your self-esteem)

Question 81

Congruence

Answer 81

This is the fit/match/comparability/consistency between the perceived or actual self and ideal self (the self you would like to be)

Question 82

Unconditional positive regard

Answer 82

This is when others love an individual unconditionally without imposing conditions of worth

Question 83

Conditions of worth

Answer 83

When others impose conditions on individuals in what to do or how to behave in order to love and accept them and as a result a person may then start imposing conditions of worth on themselves too.

Question 84

Empathic understanding

Answer 84

The therapist should aim to understand the reality of experience for the client and enter into their world, with the aim of seeing it ‘as if it were their own’.

Question 85

Unconditional positive regard

Answer 85

Acceptance and prizing of the client by the therapist for who they are without conditions of worth.

Question 86

Humanistic approach advantages

Answer 86

1. It is not a reductionist approach – humanistic psychologists do not show reductionism but they practice holism – the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. This approach may have more validity than for example the psychodynamic or behaviourist by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real life context.
2. The humanistic approach allows for personal development and change throughout the lifespan and acknowledges that we can change as a consequence of our environment – this is the complete opposite to the psychodynamic approach with states that childhood experiences lead to our destiny.
3. Research support for conditions of worth – research with adolescents has shown evidence consistent with Rogers’ view, i.e. those who experience conditional as opposed to unconditional positive regard are likely to display behaviour that meets others expectations even if they clash with their own values. Harter et al (1996) discovered that teenagers who feel that they have to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain parents approval frequently end up not liking themselves thus imposing low conditions of worth on themselves and consequently and lower self-esteem. In fact, the researchers found that adolescents who create a ‘false-self’, pretending to be the kind of person his or her parents would love (due to conditional positive regard) are also more likely to develop depression and a tendency to lose touch with their own true self

Question 87

Humanistic approach disadvantages

Answer 87

1. Untestable concepts – Humanistic psychology does include a number of vague ideas that are abstract and difficult to test. Concepts such as ‘self-actualisation’ and ‘congruence’ may be useful therapeutic tools but would prove problematic to assess under experimental conditions. As this approach describes itself as anti-scientific, humanistic psychology is short of empirical (research) evidence to support most of its claims.
2. Limited application - unlike some of the other approaches, humanistic psychology has relatively little real-world application. It is true that Rogerian therapy has revolutionised counselling techniques and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain motivation – particularly in the workplace. However, it remains the case that the approach has had limited impact within the discipline of psychology as a whole. This may in part be due to humanistic psychology lacking a sound evidence-base and also due to the fact that the approach has been described, not as a comprehensive theory, but as a loose set of rather abstract concepts.
3. Cultural bias – many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth, would be much more associated with individualistic cultures in the Western world such as the USA. Collectivist cultures such as India which emphasise the needs of the group, community and interdependence, may not easily identify with the ideals of humanistic psychology e.g. self-actualisation. Therefore this approach would not be accepted cross-cultural and thus suffers an American/Western centred cultural bias.

Question 88

Nature versus Nurture

Answer 88

According to the Learning Approach, behaviourists characterised babies as ‘blank slates’ at birth and suggest that all behaviour comes through learned associations, reinforcement contingencies or, in the case of social learning theory, observation and imitation. For example, Pavlov would argue that we need to be able to make an association between the neutral and unconditioned stimulus and this can only happen through experience. Similarly Bandura would argue that we need to have role models to observe and imitate and this would also need to happen through experiences. Thus the Learning Approach (behaviourism and Social Learning theory) would follow the nurture debate

In contrast, the biological approach argues from a position that ‘anatomy is destiny’ and behaviour is the result of genetic blueprint that we inherit from our parents – this means that the biological approach focuses on nature by saying that if we have Schizophrenia or OCD for example, then we have inherited this gene from our parents.

Other approaches such as the psychodynamic, believes that our behaviour was driven by biological drives and instincts (nature) such as being born with the eros (sex) and thanatos (aggressive) drive which are both drives for survival. However, relationships with parents also play a fundamental role in future development (nurture) – for example, with regards to fixation in the psychosexual stages, this is obviously due to parents over or under indulgence in that stage. In effect, if you become fixated in the oral stage of development, this may be due to your caregivers overly feeding you or sticking a dummy in your mouth all the time – this would be an example of how nurture affects your behaviour.

Humanistic psychologists regard parents, friends and wider society as having a critical impact on the person’s self-concept which is based on nurture. Humanistic psychologists also focus on our needs such as esteem needs, physiological needs and safety needs – all these needs are dependent upon our environment and experiences for example, in order for us to meet our safety needs we need to have a home to go to – this is based on nurture.

Finally, although cognitive psychologists would recognise that many of our information processing abilities and schema are innate (nature), they would also point to the fact that these are constantly refined through experience. For example, although we are all born with the ability to use basic schemas and knowledge (nature), we also need to have experience of the environment to develop our schemas. For example, a baby is born with the ability to be able to drink milk or put their hands in their mouth but they still need environmental experience to be able to understand what not to put in their mouth (nurture)

Question 89

Determinism versus Free-will

Answer 89

Determinism - proposes we have no control over our behaviour and all behaviour has an internal or external cause and is thus predictable

Free will – proposes that we have choice over what actions and behaviours we will carry out and we are thus active agents of our environment

The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as environmentally determined by external influences that we are unable to control. For example, a phobia is caused by a traumatic experience where a neutral stimulus and is associated with an unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned response of fear occurs – this is then maintained through negative reinforcement and the process of avoidance.

The biological approach uses biological determinism in that much of our behaviour is directed by genetic influence for example the SERT and COMT gene has been implicated in OCD. This means that if we have inherited the SERT or COMT gene from our parents, then we are very likely to develop OCD in the future. Consequently we have no free will on having this gene and thus having OCD in the future as it has already been biologically determined for us.

Psychic determinism is a key feature of the psychodynamic approach in that we cannot control the unconscious forces that drive our behaviour but these are simply rationalised by our conscious mind. These unconscious forces are driven by childhood experiences. For example, during the psychosexual stages of development, if a child becomes fixated in the oral stage, this is due to the parents over or under indulging the child, then as an adult they are likely to develop an addiction or become depressed – this was due to their childhood upbringing and therefore the child had no free will.

All the above three approaches are seen as showing hard determinism whereas the cognitive approach and social learning theory take a ‘softer ‘ view.

The cognitive approach suggests that we are the ‘choosers’ of our own thoughts and behaviours but are limited to only what we know and have experienced. For example, our schemas are determined by our interaction with the environment. However, we can choose our memories in what to remember or not remember – this is an example of free will.

Social Learning theorists like Bandura, put forward the idea of reciprocal determinism – the idea that we also influence the environment as well as the environment influencing us thus we can choose to perform certain behaviours. For example, although observation and imitation is determined by our role models, we can choose who we observe and model.

Only humanistic psychology stands alone in its assertion that human beings have free will and operate as active agents who determine their own development, behaviour and choices etc. For example, the Humanistic approach argues that in order to achieve self-actualisation we must achieve all the other criteria in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, however, we can choose our career

Question 90

Psychology as a science

Answer 90

Psychology is seen as the scientific study of the mind and behaviour – and psychologists have adopted the scientific method to study human behaviour.

However, as Psychologists (unlike the natural scientists who are Biologists, Chemists or Physicists) do not have the same assumptions about human behaviour so therefore not all psychologists adopt the scientific method.

Behaviourists – They believe that Psychology is a science and all human behaviour should be observable and adopt the S-R approach in studying human behaviour and adopt the experimental method in studying human behaviour in terms of operant conditioning and classical conditioning – which allows for high degrees of replication

Social Learning Theorists – also see Psychology as a science and adopt the scientific method by using experiments – for example, Bandura used the BOBO doll study to support his Social Learning Theory – this study was a lab experiment carried out under controlled conditions using a matched pairs design and a clear IV and DV. The IV was the observation of aggression towards the BOBO Doll from role models and the DV was whether the children would copy that behaviour.

Cognitive – sees Psychology as a science and adopt the experimental method but because mental processes are not observable, they have to use inferences. However with the emergence of cognitive neuroscience – this approach is now as scientific as ever since cognitive neuroscience is the study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes, it states the different parts of the brain are responsible for different thought processes and memories. For example, Maguire stated that the hippocampus was responsible for our long term memories as shown through his taxi-driver study.

Biological – sees Psychology as a science and all behaviour is due to our biology whether it be genes, neurotransmitters or even brain damage. This is seen as very similar to Biology. For example, The

biological approach uses fMRI scans, post mortems, EEG’s and ERP’s to study the brain – all these methods are very scientific as they are measured objectively.

Psychodynamic – generally focuses on the case study method and subjective experiences so difficult to adopt the scientific method. However, brain scans have been carried out to study the ID, EGO and SUPEREGO and sleep and dreaming have also been studied under lab conditions.

Humanistic – this approach tends to focus on the growth of the self so does not really adopt the scientific method – for example it is difficult to study congruence or self concept in a lab study as both ideas are very subjective – e.g. it is difficult to observe how good someone feels about themselves and how much self esteem they have.

Question 91

Explanation and treatment of psychological disorders

Answer 91

The Biological approach argues that mental illness is due to chemical imbalances in the brain. This means that these can be treated through drug therapy. For example, we can use SSRI’s to increase the amount of serotonin in the brain and thus can be used as treatment for depression and OCD. Furthermore, research has shown how abnormal dopamine levels have been implicated in schizophrenia – thus we are able to treat schizophrenic patients with anti-psychotic drugs which attempt to normalise the dopamine levels. In fact, both SSRI’s and anti-psychotics have been successful in treating patients.

With regards to the Behavioural approach, the two-process model argues that phobias are initiated through the process of classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning – this means that in order to treat the phobia – it needs to be counter-conditioned, therefore both flooding and systematic desensitisation have been used to treat phobias and are generally successful

With regards to the Cognitive Approach – this argues that mental illness such as depression is due to faulty informational processing and irrational thinking and Beck’s cognitive triad argues that a person is depression because they have negative views about themselves, the world and their future. This means that treatment for their depression according to the cognitive approach can be through changing their thinking patterns – thus Cognitive Behaviour Therapy has been very successful in treating depressed patients as it aims to alter the negative triad by getting the patient to challenge their negative thoughts and replace them with positive ones!!!

The Psychodynamic approach argues that mental illness is due to unresolved unconscious memories/experiences stemming from childhood and can be thus resolved through psychoanalysis – psychoanalysis is a therapy which involves hypnosis, free association, dream analysis and projective tests. These techniques allow the individual to relive their childhood experiences and through a process of catharsis – releasing all those anxieties out into the open. Research has shown that psychoanalysis is a very successful therapy in treating anxiety disorders.

Finally, the Humanistic approach states that mental illness is generally due to not receiving unconditional positive regard in childhood as well as imposed conditions of worth. It is also due to feeling incongruent – which is an imbalance between the actual self and ideal self and having a low self-esteem. Therefore the way forward is to give the individual counselling to help them to feel more positive about themselves. During the sessions, the counsellor shows them unconditional positive regard and empathy. Studies have shown that counselling is a very successful form of therapy since the individual is being valued for themselves which would increase their self esteem and help them to achieve congruence.