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Ecology - Global Change Biology > Agriculture - Climate Change and GMO > Flashcards

Agriculture - Climate Change and GMO Flashcards

1
Q

How has acreage of GMO grown?

A

over 191.7million hectares in 2020

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2
Q

How have GMO varied regionally?

A

US, Brazil, Argentina and Canada accounted for 90% total gmo crop area.

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3
Q

Which crops have the US used for GMO?

A

95% of syobeans and 88% of corn

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4
Q

How does GMO fare in europe?

A

France and Germany have banned its usage.

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5
Q

What two traits are most adopted in GMO?

A

Herbicide Tolerance(Glyphosates)
Insect Resistance(BT crops)

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6
Q

What does Glyphosate do?

A

Inhibits the 5-enolpyruvateshikimate-3-phosphate-synthase enzyme in plants.

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7
Q

What is the mechanism of action of Glyphosate?

A

Blocks enzyme activty which is important in aromatic AA synthesis, with build up of shikimate-3-phosphate(toxic)

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8
Q

What has derived by selection pressure of Glyphosate?

A

Glyphosate-insensitive EPSPS enzymes may develop not inhibited by the herbicide by target-site mutations.

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9
Q

What other mechanisms impose Glyphosate resistance?

A

Amplification of gene means overexpression of the enzyme allowing maintenance of normal aromatic biosynthesis.

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10
Q

How might plants metabolically break down glyphosate?

A

Cytochrome P450 oxidises glyphosate to produce aminomethylphosphonic acid, being less toxic.

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11
Q

How are crops altered?

A

Using a gene variation of the EPSPS enzyme, unaffected by glyphosate which derives from bacteria

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12
Q

What is EPSPS driven by?

A

35S viral promoter to drive strong expression.

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13
Q

What does the EPSPS enzyme derive from?

A

Agrobacterium strain CP4

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14
Q

How is ESPSR variation delivered to plants?

A

Agrobacterium-mediated transformation or Biolistic particle delivery

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15
Q

What is CP4 used in tandem with?

A

35S viral promoter derived from Cauliflower Mosaic Viruses, promoting strong expression.

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16
Q

What is a disadvantage with 35S?

A

May be harmful leading to metabolic imbalances or disruption of pathways in the plants.

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17
Q

What is an alternative to 35S?

A

Rice-Actin 1 Promoter, preferable for wheat and maize.

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18
Q

What are the concerns with Glyphosate?

A

Potential disruption of the microibome in human gut with metabolic disorders, immune dysfunction and neurodegenerative diseases.

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19
Q

Endocrine Disruptors

A

These interfere with the bodies hormonal systems and potentially leading to health problems, endocrine disruptors and carcinogens.

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20
Q

What are BT crops?

A

These are insect repellants binding gut receptors forming lytic pores in membranes.

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21
Q

What is the structure of BT?

A

A signal protein binding the insect gut and the pore-forming domain.

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22
Q

What does binding of Cry to receptor cause?

A

Protelytic digestion of the NTD exposing the active toxin.

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23
Q

How have BT crops been distributed?

A

Planted in over 106million hectares in 20 countries as of 2020, majorly in developing countries

24
Q

What is Cry derived from?

A

Bacillius Thuringiensis

25
Q

What is Cry used in tandem with?

A

35S promoter or PEPC(Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxylase)

26
Q

What is a disadvantage of Cry proteins?

A

May harm non-target benefical insects such as the monarch butterflies which consume pollen from BT corn.

27
Q

What are the advantages of Cry Proteins?

A

Increased yields(14.7% compared to non-BT crops)
Mycotoxin contaminiation(reduced by 99% in South Africa)
Decreased Corn Rootworm(increased yield in US by 12.5%

28
Q

What are the steps to incorporating GMOS?

A

Target Gene Identification
Isolation-Cloning of Genes
Design the Gene Construct
Deliver of genetic construct into the plant
Selection and regeneration of transformed plants.

29
Q

How can genes be cloned/isolated?

A

PCR amplifcation or cDNA generation from mRNA.

30
Q

Agrobacterium-Mediated Transformation

A

This involves transfer of genes of interest into plant cells using Agrobacterium

31
Q

What does AMT use?

A

T-DNA

32
Q

Why is T-DNA used?

A

Natural ability of Agrobacterium to transfer T-DNA into plant cell genomes, genetic engineering used to modify T-DNA to contain gene of interest.

33
Q

What does AMT utilise?

A

Naturally founf plasmid vectors in Agrobacterium called large tumor-inducing or rhizogenic plasmids.

34
Q

What is the T-Region?

A

This is a portion of integration into the plant genome.

35
Q

What is the T-Region flanked by?

A

25bp sequences where other genes within the plasmid are requried for succesful transformation.

36
Q

Why are the flanking sequqnces important?

A

They are processed by VirD1/VirD2 border-specific Endonucleases

37
Q

What do VirD2 and VirD1 do respectively?

A

Enodnuclease activity and binds ends of T-DNA

38
Q

How is T-DNA integrated?

A

Randomly where its genes expressed using the plants genetic machinery

39
Q

Mechanism of VirD2?

A

Cleaves flanking sequqneces linking the T-DNA to the plasmid, generating a linear molecule with SS overhangs.

40
Q

Why is VirD1 important?

A

Protecting the generated ends from degradation with the complex transported into the plant cell.

41
Q

Biolistic Bombardment

A

This is the nuclear plant transformation using gold or tungsten particles with direct DNA delivery.

42
Q

What is the process of Biolistic Bombardment?

A

The DNA of interest coated onto small particles, then coated onto macro pellets, placed incide a gun with a high-pressure shock wave to propel

43
Q

What happens when DNA incorporated by BB or AMT?

A

Cells are selected for by using a selectable marker, then recovred using plant tissue culture.

44
Q

What are the advantages to GM crops?

A

Introduce new traits overcoming species barriers.
Trait stacking
Fast
Increased yields

45
Q

What are the disadvantages of GM crops?

A

Transgene escape
Public acceptance
Human health issues

46
Q

What is the mechanism of human health effects of Glyphosate?

A

Degrades into aminomethylphosphonic acid by enzymatic pathways by bacteria, algae and fungi

47
Q

Why is AMPA harmful?

A

Capacity for transformation into methylphosphonic acid and formaldehyde which may be toxic

48
Q

What is the alternative to glyphosate?

A

Tilling which is harmful to the soil structure

49
Q

What is an example of Drought-Tolerant Rice?

A

DREB1A gene to regulate stress-resposne gene expression.

50
Q

PROTOX Gene

A

This encodes for protoporphyrinogen oxidase which is involved in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll

51
Q

Why is wheat susceptible to heat tolerance?

A

It is primarily a temperate crop.

52
Q

PEP Carboxylase

A

This is an enzyme functioning in primary metabolism of conversion of PEPE to oxaloacetate.

53
Q

What is PEPC used for?

A

Increase photosynthesis and biomass yield, derived from Flaveria pringlei.

54
Q

How does heat stress affect crop yield?

A

ROS damaging photosynthesis
Leaf expansion
Pollen viability

55
Q

What can Maize promoter be used for?

A

Express the HaHB4 TF to increase drought tolerance in wheat.

56
Q

What is HaHB4 important in?

A

Regulation of stress response.

57
Q

Why is maize promoter usd?

A

Overdrive expression of HaHB4 in the roots.

Ecology - Global Change Biology (8 decks)

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