All ESS flashcards

Question 1

Q

What is an EVS?

Answer

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An Environmental Value System (EVS) is a set of beliefs that shapes the perception of environmental threats and how they may impact the environment.

Question 2

Q

Name 3 inputs of an EVS

Answer

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Religion, education, media exposure.

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Economic incentives.

Answer 73

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Legislation can outlaw the emission of pollutants straight from the source, and control the amount of each pollutant that can be emitted into the atmosphere.

Answer 74

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Remediation is the clean-up of existing pollution to restore the damage created. It is the most difficult and expensive method.

Answer 75

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DDT is an example of a POP (Primary Organic Pollutant), and it cannot be broken down.

Answer 76

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An ecosystem is defined as a community of interdependent organisms and the physical environment they interact with.

Answer 77

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Non-living factors of a system.

Answer 78

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Living factors of a system

Answer 79

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Temperature, sunlight, pH, salinity, etc

Answer 80

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Producers, consumers, decomposers, species, populations, etc

Answer 81

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Producers are plants that convert energy (sunlight) into matter (food for other trophic levels).

Answer 82

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Consumers eat the plants and/or the organisms that consume the plant, depending on what trophic level they are.

Answer 83

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Decomposers are usually microorganisms or small organisms (worms, bacteria, etc) that break down waste into component parts for reuse.

Answer 84

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Species are groups of organisms with common characteristics that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring, as organisms do not function individually.

Answer 85

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Populations are groups of individuals in the same species living in the same area at the same time.

Answer 86

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A habitat is the environment in which a species usually lives.

Answer 87

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The niche is the role an organism plays and the position it holds in the environment.

Answer 88

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Fundamental and realised

Answer 89

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A fundamental niche is all the conditions that an animal can survive and reproduce.

Answer 90

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A realised niche is the actual habitat a species occupies as a result of limiting factors in its environment.

Answer 91

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Density-dependent and density-independent

Answer 92

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Limiting factors are the resources in the environment that limit the growth, abundance and distribution of organisms/populations in an ecosystem.

Answer 93

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Density-dependent limiting factors are those that only affect the population when it reaches a certain density (competition, disease, parasitism and predation). E.g. Disease spreads best when there are a lot of organisms to infect. They tend to be biotic factors.

Answer 94

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Density-independent limiting factors will limit populations regardless of their density (sunlight, temperature, water and natural disasters). They tend to be abiotic factors.

Answer 95

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The carrying capacity of an organism is the maximum number of individuals a species can sustainably support in a given area.

Answer 96

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J-Curves and S-Curves.

Answer 97

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Exponential, crash-and-boom model.

Answer 98

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There is a brief period of exponential growth

Population growth then slows down once resources become scarce.

This then stops once the population reaches the carrying capacity.

Answer 99

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Predation occurs when one organism (the predator) hunts and kills another in order to provide it with energy for survival and reproduction.

Answer 100

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Herbivory is the consumption of plant material by an animal (herbivores).

Answer 101

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Parasitism occurs when an organism (the parasite) takes nutrients from another organism (host).

Answer 102

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Mutualism occurs when two organisms of different species exist in a mutually beneficial relationship.

Answer 103

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Disease is the departure from the normal state of functioning of any living organism (plant, animal or human).

Answer 104

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Competition is when organisms compete for a resource that has limited supply.

Answer 105

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Intraspecific and interspecific

Answer 106

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Intraspecific competition is when members of the same species compete for a limited resource.

Answer 107

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Interspecific competition is when members of different species compete for a limited resource.

Answer 108

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A community is a group of populations living and interacting with each other in a common habitat.

Answer 109

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The difference between ecosystems and communities is that the ecosystem includes the abiotic components, whereas a community is simply the biotic components.

Answer 110

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Photosynthesis is a process in which light energy turns into chemical energy by primary producers

Answer 111

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Light, carbon dioxide, water

Answer 112

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Glucose and oxygen

Answer 113

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6C02 + 6H20 → C6H1206 + 602

Answer 114

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Respiration is the reverse process as photosynthesis.

Answer 115

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Oxygen and glucose

Answer 116

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Carbon dioxide and energy

Answer 117

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A trophic level of an organism is the number of steps it is from the start of the start of the food chain.

A primary producer is in the first trophic level because they are the start of the food chain, a primary consumer is 2nd, a tertiary consumer is 3rd, etc.

Answer 118

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Food chains model trophic levels

Answer 119

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Energy efficiency = (Energy output/Energy input) x 100.

Answer 120

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Bioaccumulation is the increase in the concentration of a pollutant in an organism’s body over time as they ingest it.

Answer 121

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Biomagnification is the increase in the concentration of a pollutant as it moves up a food chain, from one organism to another.

Answer 122

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The difference between the two is that biomagnification is the increase in pollutants through different organisms, whereas bioaccumulation is the increase in pollutants in one organism.

Answer 123

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Ecological pyramids are the final way of showing the feeding relationships between groups of organisms.

Answer 124

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Pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy.

Answer 125

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A quantitative representation of the number of individual organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem.

Answer 126

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Pyramids that show the amount of biomass at each trophic level.

Answer 127

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Biomass is the mass of living organisms in a given area expressed as dry weight of mass per unit area.

Answer 128

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Pyramids that show the amount of energy at each trophic level.

Answer 129

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Mass per unit of an area (e.g. grams per unit - gm-2)

Answer 130

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Joules per square metre per year (Jm2yr-1).

Answer 131

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The solar constant is the average amount of solar energy that reaches the atmosphere when the sun is the average distance away from the earth.

Answer 132

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Insolation is the amount of solar radiation received by a surface unit over a given time.

Answer 133

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The reflectivity of a surface is called the Albedo.

Answer 134

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Net primary productivity: NPP= GPP (gross) - R (respiration). Expressed as gm-2y-1

Answer 135

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Gross secondary productivity: Total productivity of consumers.

Answer 136

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Net secondary productivity: NSP = GSP - R (respiration)

Answer 137

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Gross secondary productivity: GSP = Food eaten - faecal loss (g/J m-2y-1)

Answer 138

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Sustainable yield is the amount of biomass that can be extracted without reducing the natural capital of an ecosystem.

Natural capital are natural resources that can be economically exploited.

Answer 139

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Matter cycles (meaning it goes in both directions)

Answer 140

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Energy flows (only goes in one direction)

Answer 141

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Plants absorb carbon through photosynthesis.

Animals eat plants and carbon is transferred into their bodies.

Animals also release carbon through respiration.

Decomposers (such as the shitake mushroom) break carbon down into organic matter when plants and animals die.

Over millions of years, Carbon is packed under intense pressure to create fossils.

Fossils are excavated and combusted in order to extract energy.

Answer 142

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Photosynthesis: C02 from the atmosphere is absorbed into plants.

Sedimentation: Carbon settles after decomposition and forms part of sediments.

Combustion: Carbon is released back into the atmosphere (by burning it).

Diffusion: CO2 from oceans back into the atmosphere by molecule movement.

Answer 143

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Atmospheric
Terrestrial plants
Marine plants
Soil and organic matter
Coal, oil and gas
Sediments and rocks
Ocean surface
Deep oceans

Answer 144

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The biosphere is the worldwide sum of ecosystems (the area where anything is alive).

Answer 145

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Nitrogen fixation: Nitrogen gas from the atmosphere is transformed into amonnium (NH4+)
Ammonification: Nitrogen from DOM is transformed into amonnium (NH4+).
Nitrification: Ammonium is transformed into nitrates (No2-) and then further transformed (No3-).
Assimilation: Nitrates are uptaken by plants, and are broken down as ammonium ions (stage 2).
Denitification: No3- is tranformed back into nitrogen gas.

Answer 146

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Atmospheric storage.

Soil organic matter.

Ocean.

Terrestrial plant biomass.

Answer 147

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Less nitrogen enters the atmosphere because soil is cleared for economic exploitation (less denitrification).

Nitrogen oxides (pollutants) are released due to greater combustion. This contributes to air pollution and smog.

Chemical fertilisers are used (haber-bosch process) instead of organic fertilisers. This removes nitrogen from the atmosphere (less for the nitrogen process).

Livestock release nitrogen through waste into the soil and nearby aquatic systems.

Answer 148

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Biomes are associations of vegetation that share similar climate characteristics.

Answer 149

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Temperate forest
Tropical Rainforest
Desert
Tundra
Mangrove
Temperate bogs
Coral reefs
Hydrothermal vents.

Answer 150

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K-strategy organisms reproduce small quantities with high quality (a lot of parenting, high survival rates). These organisms survive best in stable environments.

Answer 151

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R-strategy organisms reproduce large quantities in a tradeoff for quality (no parenting, at least some of them survive). These organisms survive best in unstable environments.

Answer 152

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The graphical representation of population longevity is called a survivorship curve.

Answer 153

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K strategy organisms

Answer 154

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Type II are middle ground organisms, they are equally likely to die at birth than to die of old age.

Answer 155

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Type III are R-selected species, where few survive to an old age.

Answer 156

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Succession is the predictable change in a vegetative area over time.

Answer 157

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Primary succession occurs in areas that have never had vegetation, whereas secondary succession occurs when human impact has left an area disturbed (eg. abandoned fields, deforested areas, etc).

Answer 158

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Ecological resilience is an ecosystem’s capacity to sustain its processes following ecological disturbances.

Answer 159

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Stability: THow well the ecosystem can withstand disturbances.

Precariousness: The precariousness of an ecosystem is how close it is to its breaking point.

Answer 160

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Colonisation is the phase in which pioneer species adapt to extreme conditions. These species kick-start the ecosystem. Soil starts to form through weathering and decomposition.

Establishment is the phase in which the quantity of natural resources increases and food, water and habitats develop. In this phase, the ecosystem starts to work as a whole and not as individual components.

Competition is the phase in which abiotic limiting factors are less extreme, meaning that the environment becomes more stable, and more complex organisms populate the area. The complex organisms outcompete the original species.

Stability is the phase in which the amount of new organisms entering the ecosystem decreases. K-strategists dominate the ecosystems.

Climax is the phase in which the ecosystem has high levels of biodiversity and is at equilibrium. The ecosystem will remain this way as long as the climatic conditions remain the same.

Answer 161

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Zonation is the change in a vegetative community alongside an environmental gradient.

Answer 162

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An environmental gradient is the change in environmental conditions over a geographical area (altitude, water depth, proximity to ocean, etc).

Answer 163

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Altitudinal zonation is triggered by changes in altitude.

Answer 164

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Altitudinal zonation is triggered by changes in latitude.

Answer 165

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A small quantity representing the whole, like a soil sample indicating ecosystem contamination.

Answer 166

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A plot of any shape used to sample, especially for plants or non-motile organisms.

Answer 167

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A series of yes/no questions to help identify organisms.

Answer 168

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N = (n1 x n2) / m2
Where:
N = Total population.
n1 = Number of animals marked in the first capture and release.
n2 = Number of animals recaptured.
m2 = number of animals

Answer 169

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The term “biodiversity” refers to the amount of living diversity per unit area.

Answer 170

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Genetic biodiversity.

Species biodiversity.

Habitat biodiversity.

Answer 171

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Species biodiversity is the variety of species per unit area.

Answer 172

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Species biodiversity measures both the richness and the abundance of the species in a given area.

Answer 173

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Simpson’s diversity index

Answer 174

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D = Simpson Diversity Index.

N = Population of all species in an area.

n = population of a particular species.

Answer 175

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Habit diversity is a measure of how many habitats are present in an ecosystem, community or biome.

Answer 176

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Genetic diversity is the range of genetic material present in a gene pool.

Answer 177

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A gene pool is the set of all genes present in a population.

Answer 178

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The age of an area.

The environmental stability of an area.

The range of habitats in an area.

Answer 179

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Vertical extent of vegetation: with more canopy levels, there is a higher possibility of biodiversity.

Altitude/latitute variation: with a range of altitudes, there is a higher possibility of biodiversity.

Variation in rock and soil types: variations in the abiotic environment lead to more biodiversity.

Answer 180

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Artificial selection, convergent evolution, embryology, biogeographical distribution and fossil records.

Answer 181

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Speciation is the formation of new species through biological processes.

Answer 182

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Isolation is when something stops organisms from mating with their usual partners, leading to changes in their genes.

Answer 183

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Geographic, temporal and behavioural.

Answer 184

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Geographic isolation occurs when populations are physically separated and can no longer interbreed.

Answer 185

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Temporal isolation occurs when populations are active at different times of the day and therefore do not meet to breed.

Answer 186

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Behavioural isolation occurs when populations have distinct mating rituals.

Answer 187

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Natural selection is the gradual evolutionary change that results from genetic variation in each generation.

Answer 188

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Within the population of one species, there is genetic diversity (not every organism is the same). This is called variation.

Some genetic traits may be stronger than others to deal with environmental challenges and therefore have comparative advantage (advantage when compared to other members of their species).

Fitter individuals with comparative advantage are more likely to survive long enough to reproduce than those who do not have comparative advantage.

The offspring of fitter individuals may inherit the genes that give them this advantage.

Answer 189

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Those with stronger traits are more likely to succeed.

Answer 190

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Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that explains the movement of Earth’s outer shell, which is divided into several large plates.

Answer 191

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Plate tectonics causes speciation, because species were physically separated, forced to adjust to their new conditions, and thus evolved to deal with the new environmental conditions.

Answer 192

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Divergent, convergent and transformative.

Answer 193

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A mass extinction is a sudden global decrease in the numbers of species over a relatively short period of time.

Answer 194

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The IUCN Red List evaluates species’ extinction risk

Answer 195

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The number of mature individuals (reproduction capacity)

Population size reduction

Geographical range

Degree of specialisation

Answer 196

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Extinct

Extinct in the wild

Critically endangered

Endangered

Vulnerable

Near threatened

Least concern

Answer 197

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Human causes

Natural (non-human) causes

Answer 198

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Volcanic Eruptions.
Drought.
Meteors.
Glaciers and ice age.
Competition and predation.

Answer 199

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Human causes (HIPPO):

Habitat destruction and fragmentation.

Introduced species.

Pollution.

Practices of agriculture.

Over-hunting.

Answer 200

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Can prosecute violations of regulations in their jurisdictions.

Answer 201

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Agreements are not legally binding under international law, but signatories are responsible for enforcement as GO’s.

Answer 202

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Lobby for awareness of environmental issues.

Answer 203

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A flagship species is a species selected to act as an ambassador, icon or symbol for a defined habitat, issue, campaign or environmental cause.

Answer 204

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Charismatic species are usually defined as “popular, charismatic species that serve as symbols and rallying points to stimulate conservation awareness and action.”

Answer 205

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A species on which other species in an ecosystem largely depend, such that if it were removed the ecosystem would change drastically.

Answer 206

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In-situ, ex-situ, mixed

Answer 207

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Protected areas are areas under legislation for in-situ conservation

Answer 208

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Size, shape, corridors, proximity to other protected areas

Answer 209

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Glaciers/ice caps

Groundwater

Permafrost

Surface/atmospheric

Answer 210

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Evaporation

Freezing

Melting

Deposition (gas to solid)

Sublimation (solid to gas)

Answer 211

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Snow, stream, water in soil moisture (percolation) and groundwater flow into large bodies of water, such as lakes and the ocean.

Answer 212

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Water evaporated from large bodies of water

Water collectes in clouds

Water precipitates and is fed back into the inputs (it becomes snow, groundwater, etc).

Answer 213

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Humans alter the water cycle through extraction, landscape changes causing flash floods, deforestation increasing flood risk, urbanization preventing water permeation and increasing pollution, and agriculture leading to high water use and pollutant runoff.

Answer 214

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The ocean circulates through a giant conveyor belt, which is also called thermohaline circulation.

Answer 215

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The colder and the saltier the water is, it leads it to become denser.

Water cools at the poles, sinks, travels to the equator through deep ocean currents, surfaces, warms, travels to the surface through surface currents and reaches the poles.

Answer 216

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Water-born, water-washed, water-based and water-related insect vector

Answer 217

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Diseases that occur when an individual drinks contaminated water.

Answer 218

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Diseases that occur when there is indirect contact with contaminated water.

Answer 219

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Diseases that occur when the route of entry into humans vary (ingested, worms, indirect contact).

Answer 220

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These diseases spread by insects that breed in/near water.

Answer 221

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Population growth.

Average income increases.

Increased demand for meat (water intensive product).

Growth of industries.

Increase in urbanization.

Answer 222

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Less than 1700m3/person/year in a country.

Answer 223

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Unsustainable use.

Pollution of water.

Inefficient use.

Answer 224

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Reservoirs would store water for multiple uses, implement flood control, and allow for water quality management

Answer 225

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Artificial Recharge increases groundwater levels, offering a solution to water scarcity by utilizing surface runoff or pumping from surface water

Answer 226

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Rainfall Harvesting is a low-cost method to collect and use rainwater for domestic purposes, enhancing water availability without significant infrastructure.

Answer 227

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Desalination produces drinkable water from seawater,

Answer 228

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Redistribution transfers water from surplus to deficit areas, potentially alleviating local water shortages

Answer 229

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Gray Water reuses household wastewater for non-potable purposes, reducing freshwater demand

Answer 230

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Lowering consumption

Answer 231

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Primary producers such as phytoplankton and seaweeds, which form the base of the food chain.

Primary consumers include zooplankton, ciliates and larvae that eat the primary producers.

Secondary producers are small predators such as small fish and young large fish species.

Tertiary consumers are the top predators, such as large fish (tuna, sharks, etc), marine mammals (dolphins, seals and walruses) and birds (penguins, etc).

Answer 232

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In shallow water nutrients mix (wind and currents).

River inputs bring in more nutrients.

Sunlight reaches the sea floor, which increases primary productivity.

Answer 233

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Primary producers are phytoplankton and macrophytes.

Primary consumers are zooplankton and water snails.
Secondary consumers are fish, birds and frogs.

Tertiary consumers are large fish (e.g. piranhas), large birds and mammals (otters and humans).

Answer 234

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Inland/costal pollution
Marine-based polution

Answer 235

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Potential answers:
Domestic sewage
Industrial discharge
Agricultural run-off
Urban run-off
Land development
Accidental discharges
Atmospheric inputs

Answer 236

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Outfall pipes
Materials dumped at sea
Shipping activities
Exploitation of resources

Answer 237

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Potential answers:

Reduced oxygen, toxic gases, and fish deaths from organic pollutants.

Nutrient overload causing plant overgrowth, reduced light, biodiversity loss, dead zones, and health risks.

Toxic metal accumulation, harming food chains.

Synthetic chemicals damaging aquatic life and causing human health issues.

Light blockage from solids suppressing plants.

Oil spills leading to oxygen depletion and harming marine life.

Pathogens causing health risks up the food chain.

Noise and light disorienting marine animals.

Invasive species disrupting ecosystems.

Answer 238

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pH
Temperature
Suspended solids
Dissolved oxygen
Nutrients
Presence of metals

Answer 239

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Pathogens are organisms that cause disease to their hosts.

Answer 240

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Transient pollutants are those that are dispersed prior to testing.

Answer 241

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A microbial test is used when the water is being used for recreational/consumption purposes. This tests for the presence of certain bacteria that are prevalent in contaminated water (e.g. E. Coli).

Answer 242

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To detect pathogens and transient pollutants.

Answer 243

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Biological monitoring using indicator species.

Biotic index (what organism is present).

Microbial test

Answer 244

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Replacing harmful chemicals

Obtaining consent licences for wastewater discharge (quota)

On-site treatment to meet standards prior to discharge.

Answer 245

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Reducing pesticides/fertilizers, Managing organic waste
Efficient irrigation
Contouring/buffer zones.

Answer 246

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Improving sewage treatment

Buffer zones

Water aeration

Answer 247

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Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, air and water.

Answer 248

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A medium for plant growth

Water storage/purification system

Answer 249

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Climate

Organisms

Relief (physical characterists of the land surface)

Parent material

Age

Answer 250

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Micro-organisms: Such as bacteria, algae and fungi.

Macro-organisms: Such as earthworms, insects, mites and millipedes.

Answer 251

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Minerals

Organic matter

Gases

Water

Answer 252

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It’s components (air, water, minerals, organic matter).

Answer 253

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Wind, water and erosion can loosen or remove layers of topsoil (leeching, erosion and blowing soil away).

Plants intake nutrients and carbon dioxide from soil.

Elements of soil (clay) can become outputs if animals consume them.

Answer 254

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Leaching: Soluble materials move through the soil, mainly downwards, without changing their nature.

Answer 255

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Evaporation

Decomposition

Leeching/evaporation

Answer 256

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The O horizon is the organic horizon, and it is the top layer of soil. It includes all the DOM (dead organic matter) that is eventually turned into humus.

Answer 257

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The A horizon is the topsoil and mineral layer. In this layer, clay has often been washed out and there is a high organic content layer (leading to a dark colour). The A layer is the topsoil, the area with the most biological activity.

Answer 258

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The B horizon is the sub-soil. This means that there is an accumulation of minerals and particles that have been washed down from layers O and A. Plant roots are found here, but there are very small quantities of DOM.

Answer 259

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The C horizon is the broken down parent material, which means it may have weathered and clumped.

Answer 260

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Sand

Silt

Clay

Answer 261

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Environmental conditions

Access to vehicles/technology

Financial resources

EVS

Government/political initiatives

Answer 262

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Intensive commercial (crop)
farming.

Intensive animal farming.

Organic farming.

Subsistence farming.

Intensive subsistence farming.

Answer 263

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Follows the same model as intensive crop farming, maximises outputs by inputting costly resources.

Intensive husbandry maximises output with confined spaces.

Disease spread, ethical concerns, use of growth hormones/antibiotics and the fact that organic waste contaminates water systems.

Answer 264

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General idea: Tends to be more aligned with monoculture (specialising in one crop)

Techniques: The use of GMO’s (Genetically Modified Organisms), fertilisers, irrigation systems and mechanical equipment results in high (often unsustainable) yields.

Environmental challenges, which include pesticides, fertilisers, high water use, monoculture (increases risk of contaminated crop), emissions from mechanical equipment, soil degradation and habitat loss.

Answer 265

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General idea: Limits chemical/pesticide use.

Techniques: Physical/biological pest control, use of natural fertilisers (manure, compost, etc) and polyculture farming (multiple crops).

Livestock management: Organic feed, no routine drugs/growth hormones and open space with outdoor access.

Answer 266

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General idea: Land is cleared by slash and burn, used until fertility declines, then abandoned for new areas.

Techniques: Land management (slash and burn) and fallow periods (allowing land to regenerate before reusing).

Challenges: Lack of sustainability causes fallow periods to shorten, leading to low crop production as a whole. Slash and burn techniques can grow out of control and cause wildfires.

Answer 267

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For LEDCs (Least Economically Developed Countries), food waste is mainly attributed to pests, poor infrastructure and lack of refrigeration.

Answer 268

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For MEDCs (Most Economically Developed Countries), food waste is mainly attributed to consumer behaviour and regulatory standards.

Answer 269

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Population growth, increasing affluence, cultural status, rise in cheap meat production and awareness of the high protein content of meat.

Answer 270

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Environmental degradation, increased water use/pollution and exacerbating impacts of climate change.

Answer 271

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Legislation can be used to restrict certain substances (e.g. DDT) and set regulations for food production (controlled use of drugs/hormones, pesticides, etc).

Reduction of food waste.

Growing indigenous crops (crops adapted to low fertility and rainfall).

Polyculture farming

Answer 272

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Soil is considered a non-renewable resource, given the time it takes to develop.

Answer 273

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Between 5.5 and 7.5

Answer 274

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Erosion

Chemical degregation

Physical degregation

Answer 275

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Urbanisation

Overgrazing

Deforestation

Farming practices

Answer 276

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Reduced soil fertility

Increased flooding

Desertification

Answer 277

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Vegetation cover

Terracing

Furrow diking

Conservation tillage

Buffer strips

Wind-breaking crops

Water management

Proper drainage

Organic matter addition

Crop rotation

Limit animal numbers

Rotational grazing

Answer 278

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Nitrogen (78%)

Oxygen (21%)

Answer 279

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Troposphere

Stratosphere

Mesosphere

Thermosphere

Answer 280

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The troposphere is the level from sea level to 10km in the atmosphere.

Answer 281

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The sun heating the atmosphere/earth

Wind speeds

Jet stream

Weather

Greenhouse effect

Answer 282

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The stratosphere is the layer that extends from 10 to 50 kms above sea level.

The ozone is in the stratosphere, and ozone particles absorb UV radiation from the sun.

Answer 283

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The mesosphere is the layer of the atmosphere that ranges from 50 to 80 kms above sea level.

There are no particles to absorb UV radiation, making it the coldest layer of the atmosphere (-100 degrees celsius).

Answer 284

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The thermosphere is the top layer of the atmosphere.

It extends from 80 - 500/1,000 kms above sea level.

Answer 285

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The ozone layer protects organisms from harmful UV (ultraviolet) rays (radiation) emitted by the sun.

Answer 286

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UV-A rays are the longest wavelength. Ozone is unable to absorb this radiation.

UV-B rays are the second longest wavelength. Ozone absorbs most of the radiation, but some passes through to earth.

UV-C rays are the shortest (highest energy) rays and ozone is able to absorb all this radiation.

Answer 287

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Sunburn, and related effects (cataracts, skin cancer, ect).

Immune-system suppression.

Reduction in crop production.

Lower levels of primary
production in food webs (primary producers, e.g. phytoplankton).

Reduction in forest productivity (exacerbating climate change, less carbon dioxide absorption).

Answer 288

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Dobson Units (DU)

Answer 289

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Chemicals can react with ozone (o3) and deplete it.

This causes more harmful radiation to reach earth.

These chemicals are called ODS (Ozone Depleting Substances). Often time, they include chlorine and bromine.

Answer 290

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Chlorofluorocarbons are a type of ODS. They were used as coolants, propellants in aerosol, cleaning agents and for other miscellaneous purposes.

Answer 291

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Spatial differences

Answer 292

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Possible answers:

International agreement (UN committees, etc).

National legislations

Public awarness

Answer 293

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Air pollution is the introduction of harmful particulate matter into the air

Answer 294

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Urban air pollution is matter that is introduced into the air through urban activities (burning of fossil fuels, driving, etc).

Answer 295

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Natural (volcanos)

Stationary (factory emissions)

Mobile (train fumes)

Answer 296

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Carbon dioxide

Sulphur dioxide

Nitrogen Oxides

Answer 297

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Respiratory problems

Eye irritation

Acid rain

Answer 298

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Respiratory irritation

Photochemical smog

Visibility reduction

Particulate matter

Answer 299

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Photochemical smog is a type of air pollution that forms when pollutants from vehicle emissions and industrial processes react in the presence of sunlight.

Answer 300

A

The chemical reaction occurs between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). It has hundreds of other chemicals but those are the main ones.

Answer 301

A

High emissions of pollutants

High levels of insolation

Light winds/rain

Topography (valleys)

Presence of thermal inversion

Answer 302

A

Changing human behaviour

Economic incentives

Technological changes

Answer 303

A

Acid deposition is the deposition of acidic substances from the atmosphere onto the Earth’s surface, causing environmental harm.

Answer 304

A

Acidity refers to the level of hydrogen ions present in a substance and is expressed as pH.

Answer 305

A

Lower than pH 7

Answer 306

A

Primary pollutants sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) reacting in the atmosphere.

They create the secondary pollutants of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and Nitric acid (HNO3).

This causes pH of deposition to drop below 5.

Answer 307

A

Wet deposition occurs when pollutants are incorporated into clouds or precipitation.

Answer 308

A

Dry deposition occurs when gravity causes pollutants to become absorbed into plants or buildings.

Answer 309

A

Strong winds disperse pollutants, but also cause them to travel long distances.

Light winds allow pollutants to accumulate.

Answer 310

A

It can lower the pH of water beyond levels suitable for the survival of aquatic organisms.

The loss of these species can alter food chains/webs.

pH being lowered causes the release of aluminium ions, which harms fish.

Answer 311

A

Acid deposition increases soil acidity (lowers productivity).

Lower pH causes the release of aluminium ions, which harms plant roots.

Overall, it lowers crop yield, productivity and plant damage.

Answer 312

A

Changing human behaviour (carpooling to reduce the amount of pollutants emitted into the air)

Economic instruments (Carbon taxes)

Technology (Solar panels for renewable energy)

Legislation (Emission standards for vehicles/industries).

Answer 313

A

Fossil fuels are composed of coal, oil and natural gas, they supply the energy that society needs.

Answer 314

A

Fossil fuels are created from dead organic matter under pressure for millions of years.

Answer 315

A

Infrastructure is already established to rely on fossil fuels. E.g. rail links are connected to an electricity grid powered by coal.

High energy content.

Relatively cheap.

Currently, relatively abundant.

Answer 316

A

Finite resources that are unsustainably used.

Extraction of fossil fuels can destroy habits and reduce biodiversity.

Transport and combustion of fossil fuels produces emissions

Power plants require large volumes of water, which can compromise the biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems, and its discharge can cause thermal pollution.

Answer 317

A

Coal is the most abundant of all fossil fuels.

It is extracted through mining, which can be hazardous to human health and safety.

Answer 318

A

Oil is another fossil fuel that is usually pumped from underground reservoirs, which can pollute underground aquifers and cause oil spills.

Answer 319

A

Natural gas is the fossil fuel that contaminates its environment the least.

It is extracted from sub-surface rock formations via drilling (fracking).
Fracking is a process in which water, sand and chemicals are pumped at high pressure through rocks, causing the release of natural gases.

Answer 320

A

Nuclear power is power generated by a nuclear reactor.

Answer 321

A

Low-level radioactive waste can be filtered and released into the environment little by little.

However, solid and other waste needs to be carefully disposed of.

In order to discard radioactive materials, most plants use underground repositories (storage). The concerns of this is that it can rupture.

Answer 322

A

Chernobyl and Fukushima

Answer 323

A

Nuclear power stations do not produce carbon dioxide, an exacerbator of climate change.

Compared to fossil fuels, nuclear power causes fewer casualties (coal mining accidents or premature death from air pollution).

Answer 324

A

Generation of nuclear waste with high radioactive levels.

Risk of nuclear disasters.

Potential use of radioactive materials used to produce nuclear weapons.

High capital cost and high decommissioning cost (when plant is created/dismantled).

Answer 325

A

Solar

Wind

Hydropower

Biomass

Geothermal

Wave/tidal

Answer 326

A

Improvements in local air quality (less production of primary and secondary pollutants)

Reduced greenhouse gas emissions.

Answer 327

A

Decline in fossil fuel reserves (drives price up).

Technological developments improving efficiency of renewable energy and capital cost.

Governmental support through economic incentives (subsidies).

Increasing awareness of the climate impact of fossil fuels.

Need to meet international energy targets.

Answer 328

A

Advantages:
- They can be used in remote areas.
- Low running cost.
- Silent.
- Does not emit pollutants when operating.

Disadvantages:
- Can only function off sunlight.
- High capital cost.
- Instalment emits carbon dioxide.
- Energy needs storing.

Answer 329

A

Advantages:
- Inexhaustible energy source.
- Can be used in remote areas.
- Once installed, does not pollute.
- Operational cost is low.

Disadvantages:
- Wind-dependent
- Noisy
- Aesthetically displeasing
- Can kill birds.
- High cost (upfront)
- Energy needs storing.

Answer 330

A

Hydroelectric power (HEP) is produced when water flows through a turbine connected to a generator.

Answer 331

A

Advantages:
- Low running cost
- Sustainable
- Dams regulate the risk of flooding and provide an ecosystem
- Opportunities for recreation.

Disadvantages:
- High capital cost
- Dam construction can alter systems (human displacement, loss of habitat/species diversity, loss of sediment downstream, disruption of migratory fish patterns)

Answer 332

A

Geothermal power is power that is derived from geothermal energy.

Geothermal energy is heat from the Earth, used to generate electricity or heat buildings.

Answer 333

A

Advantages:
- Cheap to operate
- Emits low levels of GHG
- Somewhat reliable supply
- Sustainable

Disadvantages:
- High capital cost
- Poisonous gases trapped under the surface of the earth can be released
- Limited to areas near volcanic activity.

Answer 334

A

It is generated by drilling wells into reservoirs filled with water and/or steam, and pushing that through pipes in order to spin turbines.

The movement of these turbines generates electricity through a generator, which creates electricity.

Answer 335

A

Energy security is defined as “the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price”.

Answer 336

A

The supply of energy meets the demand for energy.

Reliable supply that is not interrupted (e.g. conflict)

Affordable supply.

Answer 337

A

Possible answers:

Political instability and/or conflict in a country/region.

Accidents (industry) or natural disasters.

Risk of terrorist attacks or faulty supply infrastructure.

Exhaustion of resources.

Answer 338

A

Reducing imports (becoming more self-sufficienent)

Diversifying energy sources.

Promoting energy choices that favour conservation.

Answer 339

A

Availability

Sustainability

Scientific/technological developments

EVS

Economics

Answer 340

A

Climate is the average weather over the long term at a regional level (e.g. Temperature in North America over the years).

Answer 341

A

Weather refers to the conditions over a short period of time at a local level (e.g. Rain in Panama City on the 5th of February).

Answer 342

A

Solar radiation

Tilting and orbiting of the earth

Answer 343

A

Greenhouse gases

Volcanic activity

Feedback cycles

Answer 344

A

Atmospheric circulations refer to the large-scale movement of air in the earth’s atmosphere.

Answer 345

A

Hadley cell: Extends from 0° (Equator) to 30° latitude in both hemispheres.

Ferrel cell: Found between about 30° and 60° latitude in both hemispheres.

Polar cell: Extends from around 60° latitude to the poles (90° North and South latitude).

Answer 346

A

Possible answers:
- Water vapour
- Ice albedo
- Permafrost melting
- Carbon Dioxide solubility
- Cloud cover

Answer 347

A

Plant photosynthesis
Cloud cover

Answer 348

A

Range shifts mean that with a change in climatic conditions, there is expected to be a general shift of biomes, with animals/plants moving towards the poles and upwards in elevation as the equator becomes hotter. Range shifts include biome shifts (alteration of habitats) and the extinction of less adaptive species.

Answer 349

A

Migration patterns will change, as migratory species usually move in response to seasonal changes. As seasonal changes alter, changes in migration and mating times, will potentially lead to mismatches in food availability.

Answer 350

A

Potential answers:

Storm intensity.

Sea level rise.

Heatwaves.

Food/water shortages.

Environmental refugees.

Answer 351

A

Mitigation is defined as human intervention to reduce the source of greenhouse gas emissions or to enhance carbon sinks.

Answer 352

A

A carbon sink is anything that absorbs more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases.

Answer 353

A

Geo-engineering involves manipulating the earth’s environmental systems to counteract the impacts of climate change.

Answer 354

A

Carbon dioxide removal

Solar radiation management

Answer 355

A

Land use management (reforestation, reducing deforestation).

Carbon capture and storage

Absorption by oceans (ocean fertilisation with nutrients, mechanical upwelling to increase photosynthesis by phytoplankton.)

Answer 356

A

Increasing earth’s surface reflectivity includes painting rooftops with white paint, cultivating high-albedo crops, covering deserts with reflective materials. It would result in a higher reflection of sunlight into space.

The use of aerosol particles, in order to attract water molecules within clouds. It would result in enhanced cloud reflectivity, more sunlight reflected into space, potential reduction in global warming.

Solar detectors in space would involve the deployment of solar deflectors or mirrors in space. It would result in reduced sunlight reaching earth and a potential decrease in global temperatures.

Answer 357

A

Adaptation is defined as an adjustment to actual/expected climate and its effects, aiming to moderate harm or exploit beneficial opportunities.

Answer 358

A

Mitigation is addressing the causes of climate change, whereas adaptation addresses the effects of climate change.

The effects of mitigation can be seen on a global scale, whereas the effects of adaptation are at a local level.

Mitigation is easy to measure (levels of atmospheric GHG), whereas adaptation is not.

Answer 359

A

Water conservation

Desalination plants

Bans on building in flood-prone areas

Flood control (barriers, drainage improvements, diversion strategies)

Infrastructure modifications to withstand floods.

Answer 360

A

Agricultural adaptation: development and use of crops resilient to climate changes, adjusting planting and harvesting times and water conservation techniques.

Fisheries adaptation: reduce fishing intensity and catches, alongside the diversification of fisherman’s employment.

Answer 361

A

Expanding conservation areas.

Creating corridors for species migration.

Protecting vulnerable areas.
Forest fire management.

Answer 362

A

Construction and reinforcement of seawalls and coastal defences.

Contingency plans for floods.

Assigned retreat and relocation areas for coastal populations.

Answer 363

A

Monitoring systems for health risks associated with climate change.

Vaccination programmes.

Public health education on climate-related health precautions.

Answer 364

A

Possible answers:
Political and economic factors including public opinion, fear of stunting economic growth, fossil fuel dependence and the prioritisation of short-term benefits are all a barrier for implementing change.

Implementation challenges, such as knowledge gaps, policy integration (poor incorporation), communication breakdowns, regulatory weakness, political instability/corruption, procrastination and financial/technological limitations all hinder change. These are especially prominent in LEDCs.

Answer 365

A

Possible answers:
Knowledge sharing.

Complementary strategies (mitigation and adaptation being integrated).

Effective communication.

Commitment/collaboration.

Financial/logistical/technological support.

MEDCs providing support for LEDCs.

Answer 366

A

Demography is the study of populations of any organism.

Answer 367

A

CBR (Crude Birth Rate) and TFR (Total Fertility Rate).

Answer 368

A

CDR (Crude Death Rate)

Answer 369

A

NIR (Natural Increase Rate) and the DT (Doubling Time)

Answer 370

A

The crude birth rate (CBR) is the number of births/1000 per year.

OR

It details how many babies are born each year for every thousand people in the population of a country.

Answer 371

A

CBR =

Number of births/ Population

x

1000

Answer 372

A

The total fertility rate (TFR) is the number of children a woman is expected to have in her lifetime:

Answer 373

A

The critical value of TFR is 2.2.

A TFR greater than 2.2 in a country indicates an increasing population.

A TFR of 2.2 in a country indicates a stable population.

A TFR lower than 2.2 in a country indicates a decreasing population.

Answer 374

A

The infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of babies that die in the first year of their life.

Answer 375

A

IMR =

Number of deaths of children less than a year old/ Number of live births in the same year

x

1000

Answer 376

A

The role of children in the labour force.

The rates of urban living.

Women’s status.

Lifestyle and cultural norms.

Infant mortality rate.

Pensions.

Family planning/abortions.

Religious beliefs/traditions.

Government policy.

Answer 377

A

The crude death rate is the number of deaths per year per a thousand people of the population.
It details how many people die each year for every thousand people in the population.

Answer 378

A

CDR =

Deaths in one year/ total population

x

1000

Answer 379

A

Income

Education

Access to food

Availability of health care

Water supply/sanitation

Access to shelter

Answer 380

A

The rate of natural increase refers to the difference between the number of live births and the number of deaths occurring in a year

Answer 381

A

If fertility > mortality, fertility is positive.
If fertility < mortality, fertility is negative.

Answer 382

A

NIR =

(CBR - CDR) / 10

Answer 383

A

The doubling time is how long it will take a given population to double in size.

Answer 384

A

DT =

70/NIR

Answer 385

A

The malthusian theory suggests that population growth outpaces agricultural production, leading to famine, disease, and war as natural checks on population.

Answer 386

A

Emphasises not only the potential for overpopulation to cause scarcity and conflict but also advocates for population control measures, including family planning and contraception, to prevent these outcomes.

Answer 387

A

Overpopulation refers to a situation where the number of people exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life at a sustainable level.

Answer 388

A

Rising price of grains (increased demand).

Unsustainable population levels exceeding the carrying capacity of regions.

Deforestation for urban expansion, agriculture, and mining.

Overexploitation of oceans depleting fish stocks.

Topsoil depletion due to over-cropping.

Answer 389

A

Expansive, constrictive and stationary pyramids.

Answer 390

A

Expansive pyramids are characterised by a broad base, indicating a high birth rate and a rapidly growing population.

These are common in developing countries.

They show larger numbers or percentages of the population in the younger age groups, usually with each age group smaller in size or proportion than the one born before it.

Answer 391

A

Constrictive pyramids are characterised by a narrow base, indicating a decrease in fertility as less people have children.

These are most common in developed countries.

Answer 392

A

Stationary pyramids display relatively equal numbers across age groups, although older age groups logically have lower populations.

This indicates low birth rates and low death rates, suggesting a stable population.

Answer 393

A

Demographic transition model (DTM) is a theoretical framework that describes the transition of a country from high birth/death rates to low birth/death rates through stages of economic development.

Answer 394

A

Pre-industrial (high stationary) stage: Characterised by high birth and death rates, resulting in slow population growth. The economy is predominantly agricultural, and families tend to have many children for labour purposes.

Transitional (early expanding) stage: Death rates begin to decline significantly due to improvements in healthcare, sanitation, and nutrition, but birth rates remain high. This leads to rapid population growth. Economies start to transition from agriculture to industrialization.

Industrial (late expanding) stage: Birth rates start to decline, catching up with the decline in death rates, as a result of changes in societal values, increased access to contraception, and women entering the workforce. The population growth rate begins to slow down. The economy sees significant industrial growth.

Post-industrial (low stationary) stage: Both birth and death rates are low, stabilising the population growth at a low level. The economy is characterised by more service-oriented industries, and there is a high standard of living.

Answer 395

A

In the first stage, there is a high CBR and CDR.

In the second stage, there is a high CBR and a falling CDR.

In the third stage, there is a falling CBR and CDR.

In the fourth stage, there is a low CBR and CDR.

Answer 396

A

Any government policy that either directly or indirectly impacts fertility and mortality are known as development policies.

Answer 397

A

Definition:
Indirect government policies impacting fertility and mortality rates are measures not directly targeting these outcomes but influence them by affecting socio-economic conditions, healthcare access, education, and quality of life.

Example:
An example of an indirect government development policy are the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) that were established by the UN in 2000.
They are a set of eight international development goals.
They include goals such as: “Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling” and “Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015”.
Once education levels and the status of women change, this will indirectly impact fertility rates.

Answer 398

A

Direct governmental policies that impact demographics are related to fertility.

Direct governmental development policies may be pro-natalist (ones that increase fertility rates) or anti-natalist (ones that decrease fertility rates.)

Answer 399

A

Anti-natalist strategies include:

Tax/welfare disincentives.
Raise awareness.

Pro-natalist strategies include:

Tax/welfare incentives.

Answer 400

A

Natural capital is the set of renewable and non-renewable natural resources of an ecosystem.

Answer 401

A

Economic

Cultural/spiritual

Environmental capital

Technological capital

Answer 402

A

Economic capital: A resource that is tangible that has monetary value (E.g. gold has a known value according to weight and quality (carat)).

Technological advancements, economic conditions, and environmental considerations will alter the value of economic capital.

Answer 403

A

Cultural/Spiritual capital
represents the heritage and spiritual significance of sites and traditions valued within a culture or religion (E.g. Uluru (a rock formation in Australia) is sacred to Aboriginal Australians, representing spiritual capital).

Answer 404

A

Environmental capital consists of natural resources and ecosystems that support life and economic activity (E.g. The Amazon Rainforest is a form of environmental capital for Colombia, Brazil and other South-American countries).

Answer 405

A

Technological capital is when technology itself becomes a form of capital that can either enhance or deplete natural capital (E.g. Sources of renewable energy).

Answer 406

A

Solid domestic waste (SDW) is also known as rubbish, trash and garbage.

OR

It is the everyday items that are discarded by the human population.

Answer 407

A

Organic material.

Paper.

Plastics.

Glass.

Metals.

Hazardous.

Answer 408

A

A landfill site is a large hole in the ground where waste materials are buried.
In order for landfills to be non-hazardous, they must be lined with clay/synthetic flexible membrane to avoid the absorption of waste into ground water, they must be as small as possible, waste must be regularly compacted and it must be daily covered with soil in order to avoid lighter waste from blowing away.

The advantages of landfills are that it is a cheap method of waste disposal and they create jobs for local communities.

The disadvantages of landfills are that they emit dangerous gases during decomposition, it can cause the pollution of groundwater, their span is limited, are aesthetically unpleasing and increase the spread of disease.

Answer 409

A

Incineration is a waste disposal method in which waste is combusted (burnt).
After waste is initiated, it is converted into ash (what is left after the burn), flue gas (the emission from combustion plants, comprising the byproducts of fuel and combustion air, along with residuals like ash) and heat.

The advantages of incinerating waste are it reduces the volume of waste, destroys pathogens in waste and it can be used to generate electricity.

The disadvantages of incinerating waste are it emits varying levels of heavy metals, releases carcinogenic pollutants, causes property devaluation, has a high capital cost and takes away local jobs provided by landfills.

Answer 410

A

Reduce the amount of waste being produced in the first place.
Reuse an item multiple times, either for the original purpose or for some other purpose. Recycle the material of the object by transforming it into the raw material for a new object.

The advantages of this method are that it reduces landfill waste, conserves resources and encourages changes in human behaviour.

The disadvantages of this method are that it is inefficient and requires individual action, which does not always occur.

Answer 411

A

Compositing is the process of turning organic waste materials into a nutrient-rich soil material through natural decomposition.
In order to compost, organic waste has to be collected and stored until it decomposes, where it can act as a soil fertiliser.
It combines the three R’s. Removing organic material from the waste stream reduces the amount going into landfills. The decomposed organic matter is reused and recycled as soil fertiliser.

The advantages of composting is that it reduces waste, is cost-effective and improves soil health.

The disadvantages of composting is that it is time consuming, requires space and not all food can be composted (e.g. meat and dairy will rot, producing a foul odour).

Answer 412

A

The carrying capacity of the human population discusses whether or not a population is living sustainably.

If a population is living sustainably, there are enough natural resources to provide for the population without causing environmental damage.

Answer 413

A

Waste assimilation: The environment’s capacity to absorb, neutralise, or recycle waste impacts human carrying capacity by determining the limits of sustainable pollution and waste production. If the waste produced by a population is greater than the environment can absorb, then the carrying capacity of that population will be lowered.

Range of resources: The diversity and availability of natural resources, from water to minerals, influence carrying capacity by affecting the supportable population size based on resource needs.

Imports: The ability to import resources from other regions affects carrying capacity by potentially allowing a population to exceed its local environmental limits through external resources.

Technology: Technological advancements impact carrying capacity by improving efficiency in resource use, waste management, and the ability to harness new resources.

Answer 414

A

An ecological footprint is a measure of the amount of land that is needed to support a population.

Answer 415

A

Biocapacity is the biological capacity (supply) of an area/region/country to generate the resources and absorb the wastes of a given population.

Demand looks at how much productive land is needed (demanded) to supply our resources, space for buildings and roads, and to soak up the waste we create.

Answer 416

A

Energy, travel and goods: This component calculates the footprint associated with energy consumption, including electricity and fuel for transportation and the production of consumer goods.

Settlement and infrastructure: This measures the land area needed for housing, urban development, and public infrastructure like roads and buildings.

Food and fibre: This part assesses the amount of land and water required to produce the food we eat and the natural materials (like cotton) we use for clothing and other goods.

Seafood: This component estimates the ecological impact and necessity of harvesting seafood from oceans and freshwater bodies.

Answer 417

A

Carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an individual, city, event, flight, country etc. GHG are emitted through transport, land clearance production and consumption of all goods.

Water footprint is the amount of water in an EF. This includes the water you use directly (washing and drinking) and indirectly such as the amount of water it takes to grow your food.

Food footprint takes into account the land used in food production (crops, grass, animal feed), the land needed to absorb carbon emissions produced during food production and the sea area for fishing.

Answer 418

A

Ecological footprints are measured in gha/person:

Gha = global hectare.

Answer 419

A

A biocapacity deficit means that there is a greater demand for natural resources than the available supply, meaning the EF indicates that the given population is living unsustainably.

A biocapacity remainder means that there is a greater supply of natural resources than the demand, meaning the EF indicates that the given population is living sustainably.

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