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Biology > Animal Physiology > Flashcards

Animal Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

In the small intestine, nutrients are absorbed through the _________ wall.

A

Epithelium

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2
Q

What is the role of the liver and gall bladder in digestion? (2!points)

A
  1. Liver secretes surfactant (bile) for emulsification of lipid droplets
  2. Gall bladder stores bile.
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3
Q

Role of large intestine in digestion (2 points)

A
  1. Re absorbs water and further digestion of some carbohydrates especiallyby symbiotic bacteria.
  2. Feces storage
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4
Q

How are peristaltic contractions controlled? (1 point)

A

By enteric nervous system

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5
Q

What are the cross sectional layers of the intestine?

A
  1. Serosa: Outer coat
  2. Muscle layers: longitudinal (inner) and circular (outer)
  3. Sub - mucosa: Layer containing blood vessels and Lymph vessels
  4. Mucosa: small intestine lining of epithelium cells and villi. Absorbs stuff.
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6
Q

What cells of the pancrease produce enzymes? How are these cells stimulated? (2 points)

A

Pancreatic gland cells

  1. Hormones produced by stomach when food enters it
  2. Enteric nervous system
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7
Q

Besides Lipase, Amylase and Protease, State two enzymes found during digestion and the substrates they break down.

A
  1. Phospholipase breaks down phospholipids into fatty acids, glycerol and phosphate
  2. Nucleases break down DNA and RNA into nucleotides.
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8
Q

What are exopeptidases?

A

Proteases that digest peptides into individual amino acids by removingsingle amino acids until only dipeptide is left.

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9
Q

How are fatty acids absorbed by intestine? (3 points)

A
  1. Fatty acids and monoglycerates absorbed by simple and facilitated diffusion into lymph vessels
  2. After which they are converted back into triglycerides to prevent them form exiting again
  3. Also moved in by endocytosis in lipoprotein particles (coalesce with cholesterol, coated by phospholipids)
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10
Q

How is glucose absorbed by intestine?

A
  1. Facilitated diffusion
  2. Sodium - Glucose co transporter proteins. This one is passive but depends on concentration gradient of NA+ ions created by Na/K protein pumps.
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11
Q

In what ways are arteries adapted to prevent bursting? (2 points)

A
  1. Tunica media is toughened with smooth muscle fibers and elastin protein.
  2. Allows the arteries to stretch and gives them an elastic recoil.
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12
Q

What is aneurysm?

A

Excessive localized enlargement of an artery due to weakening of the artery wall.

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13
Q

What are the three layers of the artery?

A
  1. Tunica externa : tough outer layer of connective tissue
  2. Tunica Media: smooth muscle and elastin
  3. Tunica intima: smooth endothelium
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14
Q

How does the recoil of arteries help in circulation? (2 points)

A
  1. Recoil elastic fibers in the arteries pushes blood further, saves energy.
  2. Prevents diastolic pressure phase from becoming too low pressure
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15
Q

Capillary structure? (3 points)

A
  1. Smooth endothelium cells, single layer (tunica intima)

2. Pores
3. Cells coated by a filter like protein gel.

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16
Q

Explain how a thrombosis may occur. (6 points)

A
  1. Development of fatty tissue on tunica interna wall called atheroma
  2. Fats and cholesterol are low density lipoproteins (LDL’s)
  3. Phagocytes attracted, engulf the fats and stuff, smooth muscle forms fibrous capping over the atheroma
  4. Lumen narrowed. Process is called occlusion.
  5. High blood pressure passing through the narrow lumen stretches the walls of the artery too far, causing them to loose their elastic properties. This is called arteriosclerosis.
  6. If the capping ruptures blood can clot blocking artery completely. Clotting and blocking is thrombosis.
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17
Q

Heart beat contractions are characterized to be ___________

A

Myogenic

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18
Q

How does the sino atrial node cause a heartbeat? (3 points)

A
  1. During contraction, heart muscle cells depolarize, starting at the Sino Atrial node, group of specialized cells in the right atrium
  2. Impulse propagates throughout whole heart muscle due to fibre interconnections in that cells have proteins, extensive cell membranes.
  3. Time delay between atria and ventricles allows atria to push blood into ventricles
19
Q

How is the sino atrial node influenced?

A
  1. Influenced by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves from cardiovascular center in medulla
  2. Hormones such as adrenaline (or epinephrine)
20
Q

What does amylase break down?

A
  1. Breaks down amylose into three or more glucose monomers (maltose)
  2. By breaking the 1-4 bonds.
21
Q

Can amylase break down 1-6 bonds in amylopectin? Why or why not?

A

No it can not becuase of the specificity of this active site.

22
Q

What are dextrins? How are they broken down? (2 points)

A
  1. They are fragments of the amylopectin molecules containing 1-6 bonds that amylase can not digest.
  2. They are broken down by dextrinase.
23
Q

How is digestion completed in the small intestine? (2 points)

A
  1. Enzymes such as maltase are immobilized on the membranes of the micro villi on villus epithelium cells in the intestine.
  2. These enzymes break down any nutrients into their simplest monomers to be absorbed.
24
Q

Where does the blood from the villus capillaries go? (3 points)

A
  1. It is collected in venules in the sub mucosa of the wall of the small intestine.
  2. The venules meet up to transport the blood to the liver via the hepatic portal vein
  3. Excess glucose in the blood is converted to glycogen for storage in the liver. Also excess amino acids are broken down in a deamination process.
25
Q

What does the rate of abstention in the intestine depend upon?

A

It depends upon the surface area of the epithelium

26
Q

Why are the five methods of absorption in the intestine (with example) ?

A
  1. Simple diffusion (hydrophobic monoglycerates and fatty acids)
  2. Facilitated diffusion (glucose)
  3. Active transport (sodium and and calcium ions)
  4. Endocytosis ( triglycerides and cholesterol in lipoprotein complexes)
  5. Osmosis (water)
27
Q

What can be used to model absorption?

A

Dialysis tubing bag setup

28
Q

What did William Harvey prove and predict about the circulatory system? (3 points)

A
  1. Proved that blood flow through vessels is unidirectional and some vessels have valves to prevent back flow.
  2. Proved that blood flows out of the heart via arteries and vice versa for veins.
  3. Predicted the existence of numerous fine vessels (capillaries) which linked arteries and veins.
29
Q

What are three adaptations of the vein?

A
  1. Thin wall: so that adjacent musicales can easily flatten the veins helping move blood
  2. Wide lumen: to accommodate a large volume of blood moving at low pressures
  3. Valves: To prevent back flow.
30
Q

What is the function of the pores in capillaries? (2 points)

A
  1. Allow some of the plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid
  2. Allows for the entry and exit of phagocytes
31
Q

What does Myogenic mean?

A

It means that the walls of the heart made of cardiac muscle can contract on their own without being stimulated by a nerve.

32
Q

Discribe the cardiac cycle. (9 points)

A
  1. Walls of atria contract, pushing blood into ventricles through atrioventricular valves (open)
  2. Semilunar valvles are closed so blood fills the ventricles
  3. Ventricles them powerfully contract, and the pressure rapidly rises inside them.
  4. This first closes the atrioventricular valves, then cause the semilunar valves to open allowing blood to be pumped into the arteries.
  5. At same time atria are filling up with blood
  6. The ventricles stop contracting, pressure falls. The semilunar valves close.
  7. When the ventricular pressure drops below the atrial pressure, the atrioventricular valves open.
  8. Blood entering the the atrium from veins starts filling ventricles.
  9. Next cycle starts with atrial contraction.
33
Q

Name four factors generally associated with CHD.

A
  1. High blood cholesterol levels
  2. Smoking
  3. High blood sugar levels
  4. High saturated fat intake
34
Q

How does the skin protect from pathogens? (4 points)

A
  1. Skins outer layer is tough, provides physical barrier
  2. Sebaceous glands secrete lactic acid and fatty acids, reducing pH and killing bacteria
  3. Mucous membranes found in the nose, trachea and urethra are soft sticky areas which contain glycoproteins and the enzyme lysozyme.
  4. The lysozyme kills bacteria, and the stickiness of the mucus traps pathogens in the trachea, which are then moved out by cilia.
35
Q

What are phagocytes? (2 points)

A
  1. White blood cells that kill pathogens by endocytosis

2. Provide non specific immunity.

36
Q

How can HIV get transmitted? (4 points)

A
  1. Through small cuts or tears in the vagina or penis during sexual intercourse
  2. In traces of blood on hypodermic needles
  3. Across the placenta from mom to baby, or through breastmilk
  4. Through transfused blood products such as factor VIII used to help harmophilics.
37
Q

What is tidal volume? How can it be measured? (2 points)

A
  1. Tidal volume refers to the volume of air taken in or out with each inhalation and exhalation.
  2. It can be measured by using a digital spirometer.
38
Q

How does the diaphragm become a dome shape during exhalation?

A

The abdominal muscles contract, pushing it into that shape.

39
Q

What are four adaptations of the gas exchange surface?

A
  1. The alveolar membrane is permeable to oxygen and CO2
  2. Has a large surface area for diffusion (many alveoli)
  3. Alveoli are thin so distance for diffusion fo gasses is small
  4. Alveolar membranes are moist to allow the gasses to dissolve before they diffuse.
40
Q

Discribe type 1 and type 2 pneumocytes.

A
  1. Type 1 are very thin flat cells that are very permeable. Gasses need only diffuse a very small distance across these cells. Most of the alveolar membrane consists of a single layer of these cells.
  2. Type 2 are spherical cells that secrete fluid to keep the inner membrane of alveoli moist. Fluid also contains a surfactant that prevents the sides of the alveoli from sticking together by reducing surface tension.
41
Q

What are the five main causes of lung cancer?

A
  1. Smoking (contains carcinogenic substances)
  2. Passive smoking
  3. Air pollution (diesel, petrol exhausts)
  4. Radon gas (seeps from rocks like granite)
  5. Asbestos and silica
42
Q

What are five symptoms of lung cancer?

A
  1. Difficulty with breathing
  2. Loss of appetite
  3. Weight loss
  4. Coughing of blood
  5. Chest pain
43
Q

Outline the theory of Emphesyma. (7 points)

A
  1. Smoking damages the function of the cilia in the trachea
  2. Mucus with bacteria can no longer be moved out of the trachea as cilia stop their beating movement
  3. Accumulation of mucus in lungs causes infections
  4. Phagocytes are attracted to the king tissue and begin to produce elastase, a protein digesting enzyme to kill bacteria
  5. Mutagenic factors from the smoke reduce the enzyme inhibitor
    Alfa -1 - anti trypsin from being produced in large enough quantities to prevent the digestion of the alveolar membranes.
  6. Small alveoli sacs are destroyed, the remenants of which fuse to form much larger, less permeable alveoli sacs.
  7. Surface area for gas exchange is reduced. The disease is chronic and progressive.
44
Q

Role of the stomach in digestion? (3 points)

A
  1. Churning of food (mechanical.)
  2. Secretion of HCL. Kills bacteria.
  3. Secretion of protease enzymes to begin protein digestion (activation of pepsin oven to pepsin)

Biology (2 decks)

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