Antibodies

Question 1

Question: What are antibodies, and what other term are they known by?

Answer 1

Answer: Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, are proteins synthesized by B lymphocytes.

Question 2

Question: How do antibodies exhibit specificity in their function?

Answer 2

Answer: Antibodies are highly specific molecules, with each antigen having its own corresponding antibody. This specificity arises from the unique binding site on the antibody molecule, which fits precisely onto the antigen, forming an antigen-antibody complex

Question 3

Question: What is the role of antibodies in the immune response?

Answer 3

Answer: Antibodies play a crucial role in the immune response by binding to specific antigens, such as those present on the surface of pathogens, and marking them for destruction by other immune cells. Additionally, antibodies can neutralize toxins produced by pathogens and promote their clearance from the body.

Question 4

Question: What is the challenge associated with using antibodies for human therapy?

Answer 4

Answer: The remarkable specificity of antibodies makes them promising agents for human therapy; however, there are challenges. One such challenge is that the immune system’s response to any antigen, even the simplest, is polyclonal. This means that the immune system manufactures antibodies of a wide range of structures, both in their binding regions and in their effector regions.

Question 5

Question: Why would isolating a single antibody-secreting cell and placing it in culture not be a sustainable approach?

Answer 5

Answer: Even if one were to isolate a single antibody-secreting cell and place it in culture, it would die out after a few generations because of the limited growth potential of all normal somatic cells. This limits the long-term production of antibodies from a single cell.

Question 6

Question: What solution is needed to address the challenge of polyclonal antibody production?

Answer 6

Answer: What is needed is a way to make “monoclonal antibodies,” which are antibodies produced by identical immune cells that are all clones of a unique parent cell. This approach ensures uniformity in the structure and function of the antibodies, overcoming the variability associated with polyclonal antibody production.

Question 7

Question: What are monoclonal antibodies (mABs), and how are they produced?

Answer 7

Answer: Monoclonal antibodies (mABs) are antibodies produced by identical immune cells that are all clones of a single parent cell. They are made in a laboratory, where cells cloned from one cell are used to produce large numbers of identical antibodies.

Question 8

Question: What does the term “monoclonal” signify in the context of antibodies?

Answer 8

Answer: In the context of antibodies, “monoclonal” means that each monoclonal antibody is composed of a lot of copies of one type of antibody. This uniformity ensures consistency in the structure and function of the antibodies.

Question 9

Question: What are some of the different uses of monoclonal antibodies?

Answer 9

Answer: Monoclonal antibodies have a variety of uses, including diagnostic tests, targeted therapies for diseases such as cancer, autoimmune disorders, and inflammatory conditions, and as tools for research in laboratories. They are also used in biotechnology and in the development of therapeutic drugs.

Question 10

Question: How do pregnancy tests utilize monoclonal antibodies?

Answer 10

Answer: Pregnancy tests rely on monoclonal antibodies that bind to a hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), which is produced in the early stages of pregnancy. Small amounts of this hormone are excreted in the urine. The monoclonal antibodies in the pregnancy test are designed to detect the presence of HCG in the urine sample, providing a positive indication of pregnancy if the hormone is present.

Question 11

Question: How are monoclonal antibodies used in the diagnosis of diseases?

Answer 11

Answer: Monoclonal antibodies can be produced to bind specifically to certain antigens present on blood clots or cancer cells. Additionally, these monoclonal antibodies can be labeled with markers that make it easy for doctors to visualize where they have accumulated in the body. This enables doctors to detect problems before they significantly impact a person’s health. For instance, in the blood test for prostate cancer, monoclonal antibodies are used to bind to prostate-specific antigens, aiding in the early detection of prostate cancer.

Question 12

Question: How are monoclonal antibodies utilized in the treatment of diseases?

Answer 12

Answer: Monoclonal antibodies can be employed to deliver drugs to specific tissues in the body. By binding to antigens present in a tumor, for instance, monoclonal antibodies can serve as vehicles to transport drugs or radioactive substances directly to cancer cells. This targeted delivery approach enhances the efficacy of treatment while minimizing damage to healthy tissues.

Question 13

Question: Which types of cancer have approved treatments utilizing monoclonal antibodies?

Answer 13

Answer: Approved treatments utilizing monoclonal antibodies have been developed for various types of cancers, including:
- Brain cancer
- Breast cancer
- Chronic lymphocytic leukemia
- Colorectal cancer
- Head and neck cancers
- Hodgkin’s lymphoma
- Lung cancer
- Melanoma
- Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
- Prostate cancer
- Stomach cancer

Question 14

Question: How are monoclonal antibodies utilized in diagnosis?

Answer 14

Answer: Monoclonal antibodies are used in diagnosis, such as in pregnancy tests, where they bind to specific hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) to indicate pregnancy. In laboratories, they can also be employed to measure the levels of hormones and other chemicals in blood or to detect pathogens by binding to specific antigens.

Question 15

Question: What role do monoclonal antibodies play in laboratory research?

Answer 15

Answer: In laboratory research, monoclonal antibodies are utilized to locate or identify specific molecules in cells or tissues by binding to them with a fluorescent dye. This allows researchers to visualize and study the distribution and function of these molecules within biological samples.

Question 16

Question: How are monoclonal antibodies utilized in the treatment of diseases?

Answer 16

Answer: In the treatment of diseases such as cancer, monoclonal antibodies can be coupled with various substances like radioactive isotopes, toxic drugs, or chemicals that inhibit cell growth and division. By binding to specific antigens on cancer cells, these monoclonal antibodies deliver the attached substances directly to the cancer cells, sparing healthy cells from harm.

Question 17

Question: How do monoclonal antibodies (mABs) demonstrate specificity in their targeting?

Answer 17

Answer: Monoclonal antibodies (mABs) are specific to one binding site on one protein antigen. This specificity enables them to target a particular chemical or cell type with precision, facilitating targeted therapy and diagnosis.

Question 18

Question: What happens to a lymphocyte once it starts producing antibodies?

Answer 18

Answer: Once a lymphocyte starts producing antibodies, it cannot divide anymore. This process marks the end of the lymphocyte’s proliferation, as it becomes dedicated to the production of antibodies.

Question 19

Question: How are monoclonal antibodies produced?

Answer 19

Answer: Monoclonal antibodies (mABs) are produced through a process called hybridoma technology. This involves fusing a specific antibody-producing B lymphocyte with a myeloma cell to create a hybrid cell called a hybridoma. The hybridoma cells are then cultured and screened to identify clones that produce the desired monoclonal antibody. These selected hybridoma cells are then grown in large quantities to produce the monoclonal antibodies for various applications.

Question 20

Question: What are some of the observed side effects of using monoclonal antibodies (mABs) in humans?

Answer 20

Answer: Some observed side effects of using monoclonal antibodies (mABs) in humans include chills or fever, itchy rashes, nausea, breathlessness or wheezing, headaches, and changes in blood pressure.

Question 21

Question: What was the initial expectation regarding the use of monoclonal antibodies (mABs) in medicine?

Answer 21

Answer: Initially, doctors and scientists thought that monoclonal antibodies (mABs) would act like a ‘magic bullet,’ affecting only the diseased tissue while sparing healthy cells. However, this expectation has not been fully realized, as mABs can lead to unexpected side effects and are not yet as widely used or as successful as hoped.

Question 22

Question: What are some of the challenges associated with the production and use of monoclonal antibodies (mABs)?

Answer 22

Answer: Some challenges associated with the production and use of monoclonal antibodies (mABs) include the high cost of production for healthcare systems like the NHS, difficulty in obtaining the right antibodies and attaching compounds to them, and the risk of harming healthy body cells. These challenges contribute to the limited success and widespread adoption of mABs in medical practice.

Question 23

Question: What are some advantages of using monoclonal antibodies (mABs) as a cancer treatment compared to radiotherapy and chemotherapy?

Answer 23

Answer: Some advantages of using monoclonal antibodies (mABs) as a cancer treatment over radiotherapy and chemotherapy include:

Selective targeting: mABs only combine with specific cancer cells being treated, sparing healthy body cells from damage.
Reduced side effects: Side effects can be treated and reduced by using mice-human hybrid cells or by using fractions of antibodies.
Specificity: mABs bind specifically to diseased or damaged cells needing treatment, minimizing off-target effects.
Versatility: mABs can treat a wide range of conditions beyond cancer.
Diverse applications: mABs can be used in various ways, offering flexibility in treatment approaches.

Question 24

Question: How do monoclonal antibodies (mABs) achieve a more targeted approach in cancer treatment compared to traditional therapies?

Answer 24

Answer: Monoclonal antibodies (mABs) achieve a more targeted approach in cancer treatment by selectively binding to specific antigens present on cancer cells. This specificity allows mABs to deliver therapeutic agents directly to cancer cells while sparing healthy tissues, minimizing off-target effects commonly associated with traditional therapies like chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

Question 25

Question: How are side effects of monoclonal antibody (mAB) treatments addressed or reduced?

Answer 25

Answer: Side effects of monoclonal antibody (mAB) treatments can be addressed or reduced by using mice-human hybrid cells or by using fractions of antibodies, which may lessen immune reactions and side effects. Additionally, advancements in technology and formulation may contribute to minimizing adverse effects associated with mAB treatments.

Question 26

Question: What is the role of mice in the production of monoclonal antibodies (mABs), and how is it related to tumour cells?

Answer 26

Answer: Mice are used in the production of monoclonal antibodies (mABs) to produce both antibodies and tumor cells. The production of tumor cells involves deliberately inducing cancer in mice. Despite efforts to minimize suffering through specific guidelines, some individuals still have reservations about using animals in this manner.

Question 27

Question: What are some diseases that have been successfully treated with monoclonal antibodies (mABs), and what are the associated risks?

Answer 27

Answer: Monoclonal antibodies (mABs) have been successfully used to treat diseases such as cancer and diabetes, saving many lives. However, there have also been instances of adverse reactions, including deaths, associated with their use in treating diseases like multiple sclerosis.