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A Level Psychology > Approaches > Flashcards

Approaches Flashcards

1
Q

Define psychology

A

The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context.

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2
Q

Define science

A

A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.

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3
Q

Define introspection

A

The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
(Wundt 1879)

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4
Q

What did Rene Descartes suggest?

At what period of time?

A

Descartes (1596-1650), French philosopher.
Suggested that the mind and body structure independent from each other -> “Cartesian dualism”.
Suggested that the mind can be an object of study in its own right.

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5
Q

What did John Locke suggest?

At what period of time?

A

Locke (1632-1704).
Suggested the idea that all experience can be obtained through the senses, and that human beings inherit neither knowledge nor instincts -> “empiricism”.
-> formed the basis of the behaviourist approach.

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6
Q

What did Charles Darwin suggest?

At what period of time?

A

Darwin (1809-1882).
Suggested that all human and animal behaviour had changed over successive generations due to natural selection -> “evolutionary theory”.
-> idea is present in the biological approach.

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7
Q

What was psychology known as during the 17th-19th century?

A

Experimental philosophy.

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8
Q

Who opened the first experimental psychology lab?
When?
Where?

A

Wundt.
1879.
Leipzig, Germany.

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9
Q

What did Wundt’s experiment involve?

A

Wundt (1879), introspection.
Wundt and his co-workers recorded their own conscious thoughts -> aim of breaking these down into their constituent parts.
Isolating the structure of consciousness in this way = “structuralism”.

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10
Q

Evaluate Wundt’s experiment of introspection

A

Easily replicable -> standardised instructions.

Internally valid -> strictly controlled conditions, using same stimulus each time eg ticking metronome.

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11
Q

Was Wundt’s experiment of introspection scientific?

A

Yes

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12
Q

Who developed the psychodynamic approach?

At what period of time?

A

Sigmund Freud, 1900s

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13
Q

How did the psychodynamic approach develop?

A

Sigmund Freud, 1900s.
Freud emphasised the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour, alongside the development of his person-centred therapy, “psychoanalysis”.
He argued that physical problems could be explained in terms of conflicts within the mind.

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14
Q

Who developed the behaviourist approach?

What year?

A 
John Watson (1913)
BF Skinner (1953)
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15
Q

Who developed the humanistic approach?

At what period of time?

A

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, 1950s.

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16
Q

What did the humanistic approach do?

A

Rogers and Maslow, 1950s.
The humanistic approach rejected the views favoured by behaviourism and psychodynamic approach that human behaviour was not determined by the individual.

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17
Q

What do humanistic psychologists emphasise?

A

The importance of self determination and free will in influencing behaviour.

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18
Q

When was the cognitive approach introduced?

What did this coincide with?

A

1960s.

When the digital computer was invented -> metaphor for the operations of the human mind.

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19
Q

What did the cognitive approach reintroduce to psychology?

A

Reintroduces the study of mental processes, but in a much more scientific way than Wundt’s earlier investigations.

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20
Q

Who developed social learning theory?

When?

A

Albert Bandura, 1960s.

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21
Q

What does social learning theory draw attention to?

A

Bandura, 1960s.
SLT draws attention to the role of cognitive factors in learning -> providing a bridge between the new cognitive approach and traditional behaviourism.

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22
Q

When did the biological approach begin to develop?

Why?

A

1980s onwards.

Due to advances in technology -> increased understanding of the brain and biological processes.

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23
Q

When did cognitive neuroscience begin to develop?

What does it bring together?

A

Beginning of the 21st century.

Brings together cognitive and biological approaches.

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24
Q

What does cognitive neuroscience do?

A
  • Brings together cognitive approach and biological approach.
  • It built on the earlier computer models and investigates how biological structures influence mental states.
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25
Q

Describe the emergence of psychology as a science

A
  • Wundt’s introspection, 1879 = controlled but subjective (varies greatly between people so can’t generalise).
  • Watson -> a truly scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed and measured -> behaviourist approach.
  • Experimental methods used -> scientific.
  • Cognitive revolution 1960s -> study of mental processes is highly scientific -> lab test based inferences are made.
  • Biological psychology uses specialised brain scanners etc.
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26
Q

Define learning approach

A

The idea that we are born as a blank slate and all behaviours are learned.

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27
Q

Name the approaches / theories that are a part of learning approach

A

Behaviourist approach.

Social learning theory.

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28
Q

Name the types of behaviourist approach

A

Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

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29
Q

Define classical conditioning

A

Learning by association

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30
Q

Define operant conditioning

A

Learning by consequences

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31
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

Assumes learning occurs when an association is made between a previously neutral stimulus and a reflex response.
Can be positive or negative.

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32
Q

Who devised the experiment on ‘Little Albert’?
What was it testing?
What did the results show?

A

Watson and Raynor (1920).
Testing classical conditioning.
Proved that phobias can develop by classical conditioning.

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33
Q

What did Pavlov’s experiments test?

Give an example of one of his experiments

A

Tested classical conditioning.

Eg conditioning a bell to cause a dog to salivate.

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34
Q

Define neutral stimulus

A

Something in an environment which does not initially cause a response

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35
Q

Define unconditioned stimulus

A

Anything that naturally has the power to produce a response in a human / animal

36
Q

Define unconditioned response

A

A natural reflex response to an unconditioned stimulus

37
Q

Define conditioned stimulus

A

The neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus when it acquires the ability to produce a specific response in the human / animal (after conditioning)

38
Q

Define conditioned response

A

The learnt response to something that doesn’t naturally have the power to produce a response in a human / animal

39
Q

Describe the process of classical conditioning

A

UCS -> UR.
NS -> no response.
NS + UCS -> UR.
CS -> CR.

40
Q

Define stimulus generalisation

A

When stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response.

41
Q

Define stimulus discrimination

A

The conditioned response is only produced in response to the conditioned stimulus and not to similar stimuli

42
Q

Define extinction

A

When the conditioned response declines and disappears because the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus

43
Q

Name the ways in which operant conditioning can occur

A

Positive reinforcement.
Negative reinforcement.
Punishment.

44
Q

Define positive reinforcement

A

A behaviour is more likely to occur due to positive / pleasant consequences

45
Q

Define negative reinforcement

A

A behaviour is more likely to occur in order to avoid negative / unpleasant consequences, or to take away something negative.

46
Q

Define punishment as a means of operant conditioning

A

A behaviour is less likely to occur due to experiencing negative consequences in the past

47
Q

Who’s work underpinned the principles of operant conditioning?

A

Thorndike (1898)

48
Q

What was Thorndike’s (1898) experiment of operant conditioning?

A

He observed how cats managed to escape a puzzle box -> operant conditioning, ‘Law Of Effect’

49
Q

Name the psychologist who was influenced by Thorndike’s work and was a major force in the behaviourism movement

A

Skinner

50
Q

What did Skinner’s work on behaviourism focus on?

A

Lab experiments with animals

51
Q

What did Skinner investigate?

A

How rewards and punishments can shape behaviour.

The Skinner box was designed to observe animal responses in contrived situations.

He also conducted experiments on humans.

52
Q

What is continuous reinforcement?

What are the characteristics of it?

A

Every single response is reinforced.

  • > low but steady response rate
  • > very low resistance to extinction - it’s the quickest way to bring about extinction.
53
Q

What is fixed interval reinforcement?

What are the characteristics of it?

A

Reinforcement is given every fixed time period if the response has occurred at least once.

  • > low overall response, response rate speeds up as next reinforcement becomes available.
  • > fairly low resistance to extinction - extinction occurs quite quickly.
54
Q

What is variable internal reinforcement?

What are the characteristics of it?

A

A reinforcement is given eg on average every 30 seconds but it varies so the interval is unpredictable.

  • > quite stable response rate but may increase as more time elapses from last reinforcement.
  • > very high resistance to extinction - extinction occurs very slowly.
55
Q

What is fixed ratio reinforcement?

What are the characteristics of it?

A

A reinforcement is given for a fixed number of responses (not time related).

  • > a pause after each reinforcement, but a high rate of responding leading up to next reinforcement.
  • > fairly low resistance to extinction - extinction occurs quite quickly.
56
Q

What is variable ratio reinforcement?

What are the characteristics of it?

A

A reinforcement is given on average eg every 10 responses but the number varies.

  • > very high and steady response rate.
  • > very high resistance to extinction - most resistance of all schedules.
57
Q

Give an example of continuous reinforcement

A

Eg receiving a tip every time you serve a customer

58
Q

Give an example of fixed interval reinforcement

A

Eg being paid regularly, every week/month

59
Q

Give an example of variable interval reinforcement

A

Eg a self employed person may receive payment irregularly depending on when the customer pays

60
Q

Give an example of fixed ratio reinforcement

A

Eg piece work - the more work done, the more money earned

61
Q

Give an example of variable ratio reinforcement

A

Eg gambling

62
Q

Who decided the ABC process of operant conditioning?

A

Skinner

63
Q

What is Skinner’s ABC if operant conditioning?

A

To analyse any behaviour it is necessary to consider …

Antecedents.
Behaviours.
Consequences.

64
Q

Give the positive evaluations of behaviourism

A

• Scientific credibility

  • > measurement of observable behaviour.
  • > highly controlled labs.
  • > emphasised importance of objectivity and replicability.

• Real life application

  • > principles of conditioning -> help to reduce negative behaviour encourage positive behaviour.
  • > operant conditioning used successfully in prisons, schools, psychiatric wards.
  • > classical conditioning treats phobias by systematic desensitisation.
65
Q

Give the negative evaluations of behaviourism

A

• Mechanistic view of behaviour

  • > assumes animals / humans are passive and machinelike responders to their environment.
  • > not interested in cognitive processes as they’re not observable.
  • > deterministic - we have no control over our behaviour.
  • > ignores free will, doesn’t explain spontaneous behaviour.
  • > conditioning may apply more to animals.

• Use of animals

  • > high degree of control but unfair, stressful confinions.
  • > harsh conditions may affect behaviour.
  • > animals may not generalise to humans
66
Q

Define social learning theory

A

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.

67
Q

What does social learning theory assume that people learn by?

A

By observing and imitating others within a social context.

68
Q

Define imitation

A

Copying the behaviours of others

69
Q

Define identification

A

When an observer associates themselves with the role model and wants to be like the role model.

70
Q

Define modelling

A

The precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.

71
Q

Define vicarious reinforcement

A

Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour.
This is a key factor in imitation.

72
Q

Define mediational processes

A

Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

73
Q

Name the mediational processes that Bandura identified

A

Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation

74
Q

Name the researcher in investigated social learning theory

A

Bandura (1961)

75
Q

State the aims of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory

A
  • To examine the effect of the continual influence of the model.
  • To examine if sex of the model influenced same/opposite sex RPs to a differing degree.
76
Q

Name the stages of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory

A
  1. Modelling.
  2. Mild aggression arousal.
  3. Observation.
77
Q

Describe stage 1 of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory.

A

Modelling…
• Child was put into a room with the model.
• Role model either showed aggressive behaviour or non-aggressive behaviour towards a Bobo-doll.
-> hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it.
• 10 minutes.

78
Q

Describe stage 2 of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory.

A

Mild aggression arousal…
• Child was taken into another room.
• Told they cannot play with any of the toys in the room.
• 2 minutes.

79
Q

Describe stage 3 of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory.

A 
Observation...
• Child taken into a third room.
• Told they can play with the toys.
-> bobo doll, Mallet, guns etc / dolls, crayons, plastic farm.
• 20 Minutes.
80
Q

What were the results of Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory?

A
  • Children who observed aggressive behaviour from the role model acted more aggressively themselves.
  • Boys showed more aggression than girls.
  • Greater level of imitation when child was same gender as model.
81
Q

What was the sample of participants like in Bandura’s (1961) experiment on social learning theory?

A

36 males, 36 females.

Aged 37-69 months -> average of 4 years old.

82
Q

Bandura + Walters (1963) did a variation of the original experiment on social learning theory.
What did they change?

A

The children watched videos of the role models behaviour towards a Bobo-doll.
The videos included vicarious reinforcement -> positive, negative and nothing control.

83
Q

What were the results of Bandura + Walter’s (1963) experiment on social learning theory?

A

Children who observed positive vicarious reinforcement towards the role model demonstrating aggressive behaviour -> acted more aggressively themselves.
No vicarious reinforcement -> 2nd most aggressive.
Negative vicarious reinforcement -> least aggressive.

84
Q

Give the positive evaluations of social learning theory

A

• Shows the importance of cognitive factors in learning.
-> classical/operant conditioning aren’t realistically going to be the only form of learning, or learning would be too laborious and hazardous.
• SLT explains cultural differences in behaviour.
-> by observing individuals around you, media etc -> gender roles.
• Less deterministic than behaviourist approach.
-> Bandura suggests we have some free will in the behaviours we choose to perform.

85
Q

Give the negative evaluations of social learning theory.

A

• Evidence from lab studies.
-> too artificial -> can’t generalise behaviour to daily life.
-> main purpose of bobo doll is to hit it -> lowers validity.
-> demand characteristics,
• Doesn’t take into account biological factors.
-> boys may be more aggressive than girls due to testosterone levels -> linked with aggression.

A Level Psychology (6 decks)

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