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Psychology > Approaches in Psychology > Flashcards

Approaches in Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

Who was the first person to call himself a psychologist?

A

Wundt

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2
Q

What did Wundt believe ?

A

That all aspects of human nature, including the human mind, could be studies scientifically.

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3
Q

What was Wundt’s aim? What did he believe was the best way to do this?

A

To study the structure of the human mind. He believed the best way to do this was to break down behaviours such as sensation and perception into their basic elements.

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4
Q

What was his approach referred to as? What was the technique Wundt used called? What was it?

A

Structuralism.
Introspection.
just as our perceptual ability enables us to observe and make sense of the outer world, this enables us to observe our inner world.

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5
Q

What did Wundt argue that (with training) we could achieve?

A

Mental processes such as memory and emotion could be observed systematically as they occurred.

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6
Q

Give an example of Wundt’s studies, and what that made it possible to do

A

In Wundt’s studies of perception, participants would be presented with carefully controlled stimuli (e.g. visual images) and asked to describe the inner processes they were experiencing as they looked at it. This made it possible to compare different participants’ reports in response to the same stimuli, so as to establish general theories about perception and other mental processes.

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7
Q

Empiricism

A

The belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience. It is generally characterised by the use of the scientific method in psychology.

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8
Q

Introspection

A

The process by which a person gains knowledge about his or her own mental and emotional states as a result of the examination or observation of their conscious thoughts and feelings

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9
Q

Scientific method

A

Refers to the use of investigative methods that are objective, systematic and replicable, and the formulation, testing and modification of hypotheses based on these methods

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10
Q

Three main criteria for the scientific method

A

Objective, systematic, replicable

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11
Q

Describe Objective

A

preconceptions or bias do not influence data collection

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12
Q

Describe Systematic

A

Recording and procedures are carried out with precision and control

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13
Q

Describe Replicable

A

Experiments can be repeated by other researchers to determine if the same results are achieved

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14
Q

What other key features of the scientific method are there?

A

Uses the process of reason to explain observations. The scientific process involves testing and refining theory as further results verify or challenge existing results.

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15
Q

The origins of psychology
Evaluation
Wundts methods were unreliable

A

Wundts methods were unreliable
Introspection involves no observable processes which are not easily reproduced. Later work by Pavlov and Skinner could achieve reproducible results, based on publicly observable behaviour leading to generalisable conclusions in regard to human behaviour.

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16
Q

The origins of psychology
Evaluation
Introspection is not particularly accurate

A

Introspection is not particularly accurate. We therefore have little knowledge. Something like sexism or racism will not show up in introspection but will do in behaviour. Individuals are not always aware of their beliefs, therefore introspection will not produce accurate results because individuals are not consciously aware of their beliefs.

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17
Q

The origins of psychology
Evaluation
Strengths of a scientific approach to psychology

A

Relies on empirical, objective and systematic data and is therefore less biased.
Also operates under the principle of determinism whereby it can establish cause and effect of behaviours. It is also self-correcting; explanations that are not reliable are discounted and theories are continually evolving as understanding progresses.

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18
Q

The origins of psychology
Evaluation
Limitations of a scientific approach to psychology

A

May not be appropriate to explain the complexities of human behaviour. The high levels of objectivity and control which facilitate reliability sacrifice validity most notably a lack of ecological validity due to the fact the experiments often lack realism. Much of our matter is unobservable with much of human behaviour being too complex to be studied in this way.

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19
Q

The origins of psychology
Evaluation
Introspection is still useful in scientific psychology

A

Introspection is still useful in scientific psychology. Researchers investigated teenage mood states. When a buzzer sounded the teenagers had to log their current mood. It was found that teenagers spend more of their time unhappy than happy. Interestingly they were more likely to be happy if they were engaged in something challenging.

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20
Q

Evaluation points for The Origins of Psychology (5)

A 
Wundt's methods were unreliable
Introspection is not accurate
Strengths of scientific approach 
Limitations of scientific approach
Introspection still used today
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21
Q

Scientific cycle

A

Objective, systematic and replicable observation -> Building, refining, falsifying -> Development of scientific theory -> testing

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22
Q

Behaviourist

A

People who believe that human behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without the need to consider thoughts or feelings

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23
Q

Classical conditioning

A

When a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus and is able to produce a conditioned response

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24
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Learning through reinforcement or punishment. If a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence then that behaviour is more likely to occur again in the future.

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25
Q

Punishment

A

Involves the application of an unpleasant consequence following a behaviour, with the result that the behaviour is less likely to occur again in the future

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26
Q

Reinforcement

A

A term used in psychology to refer to anything that strengthens a response and increases the likelihood that it will occur again in the future.

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27
Q

Basis of classical conditioning

A

All animals are born with a number of natural reflexes e.g. reflex of salivation. stimulus (food) leads to response (salivation). When other stimuli are consistently associated with this stimulus, and predict its arrival, then eventually they too trigger the same response.

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28
Q

Pavlov’s research

A 
Investigating salivary reflex in dogs
Noticed that dogs didn't only salivate at presence of food, but also objects associated with presence of food (e.g. bowl) 
UCS (food) -> UCR (dog- salivates)
NS (bell) -> No salivation (dog)
consistent pairing of UCS + NS
UCS+NS -> UCR (salivates)
CS (bell) -> CR (salivates)
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29
Q

Timing (key feature of CC)

A

If the NS cannot be used to predict the UCS (e.g. it occurs after the UCS or the time interval between the two is too great), then conditioning does not take place

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30
Q

Extinction (key feature of CC)

A

Pavlov discovered that unlike the UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as a response. After a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS, it loses its ability to produce the CR.

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31
Q

Spontaneous recovery (key feature of CC)

A

Following extinction, if the CS and UCS are then paired together once again, the link between them is made much more quickly

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32
Q

Stimulus generalisation (key feature of CC)

A

Pavlov discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS

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33
Q

Basis of operant conditioning

A

Organisms spontaneously produce different behaviours, and these behaviours produce consequences for that organism, some of which may be positive (i.e. desirable) and some negative (i.e. undesirable). Whether or not an organism repeats a particular behaviour depends on the nature of these consequences i.e. it is reinforced.

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34
Q

Skinner box

A

Rat moves around cage, accidentally presses lever, food falls into cage, rat presses lever again and again until food stops being released and eventually abandons it

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35
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

occurs when behaviour produces a consequence that is satisfying or pleasant for the organism; for example food to a hungry animal

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36
Q

Negative Reinforcers

A

work because they remove something unpleasant and so restore the organism to its ‘pre-aversive’ state. e.g. hitting the off button on an annoying alarm

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37
Q

Schedules of reinforcement (other key feature of OC)

A

although a continuous reinforcement schedule is most effective in establishing a particular response, a partial reinforcement schedule (e.g. every 10mins) is more effective in maintaining that response and avoiding extinction

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38
Q

Punishment (other key feature of OC)

A

refers to the circumstance whereby a behaviour is followed by a consequence that is undesirable or unpleasant for the organism. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour recurring, whereas punishment decreases it. As with reinforcement, punishment can also be positive (e.g. adding something unpleasant) or negative (e.g. taking away something pleasant)

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39
Q

The behaviourist approach
Evaluation
Strengths of classical conditioning explanations

A

treatments based on the theory are effective e.g. systematic desensitisation. counter conditioning shows behaviour was learnt through classical conditioning

40
Q

The behaviourist approach
Evaluation
Limitations of classical conditioning explanations

A

assumes all behaviour is leant
the idea of biological preparedness suggests we have the innate ability to learn some associations but not others.
learn associations that aid survive;
challenges the idea any neutral stimulus can be associated with
an unconditioned response

41
Q

The behaviourist approach
Evaluation
Strengths of operant conditioning explanations

A

methodology used by Skinner
highly controlled, shows causal connection by manipulating IV (consequences of behaviour) and measuring effect on DV (behaviour)

42
Q

The behaviourist approach
Evaluation
Limitations of operant conditioning explanations

A

uses rats and pigeons
tells us little about human behaviour which could result from free will
Skinner argued free will was an illusion- actually a product of external influences

43
Q

Identification

A

a from of influence where an individual adopts an attitude or behaviour because they want to be associated with a particular person or group

44
Q

Imitation

A

The action of of using someone or something as a model and copying their behaviour

45
Q

Meditational processes

A

Refers to the internal mental processes that exist between environmental stimuli and the response made by an individual to those stimuli

46
Q

Modelling

A

A form of learning where individuals learn a particular behaviour by observing another individual performing that behaviour

47
Q

Social learning theory

A

learning through observing others and imitating behaviours that are rewarded

48
Q

Vicarious reinforcement

A

Learning that is not a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour, but through observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour.

49
Q

Basis of Social learning theory

A

Bandura believed new patterns of behaviour could be acquired not only through direct experience, but also by observing one’s own behaviour and the behaviour others

50
Q

Modelling

A

someone just carry out (‘or model’) the attitude or behaviour to be learned . Individuals that perform this role are models.
a live model could be a parent, teacher, friend etc.
A symbolic model is someone in the media e.g. TV character
models are observed and behaviours are later reproduced by them in a process known as imitation

51
Q

Imitation

A

much of what a child learns is acquired through imitation of attitudes and behaviours that are modelled by parents or significant others. When a model is provided, patterns of behaviour can be rapidly acquired
Key determinants:
i) characteristics of the model
ii) observer’s perceived ability to perform that behaviour
iii) observed consequences of the behaviour

52
Q

Identification

A

extent to which an individual relates to a model and feels they are similar to that person. observer must feel he or she is similar enough to them that they would be likely to experience the same outcomes in that situation. e.g. same sex

53
Q

Vicarious reinforcement

A

individuals learn about the likely consequences of an action, and then adjust the subsequent behaviour accordingly . suggests the individuals do not need to experience rewards or punishments directly in order to learn. Instead they cam observe the consequences experienced by a model and then make judgements as to the likelihood of experiencing the outcomes themselves.

54
Q

The role of meditational processes

A

mental representations + possible consequences. Individual might display the learned behaviour provided the expectation of positive consequences is greater than the expectation of negative consequences.

55
Q

SLT key study- procedures

A

Bandura et al- carried out an experiment involving children who observed aggressive or non-aggressive adult models and were then tested for imitative learning in the absence of the model- Bobo doll (half saw an adult acting aggressively with it, other half weren’t). The aggressive model displayed distinctive physically aggressive acts toward the doll. Following exposure to the model, children were frustrated by being shown attractive toys which they were not allowed to play with. They were then taken to a room where among other toys there was a Bobo doll

56
Q

SLT key study- Findings

A

Children who observed the aggressive model reproduced a good deal of physically and verbally aggressive behaviour resembling that of the model. Children who observed the non-aggressive model exhibited virtually no aggression towards the Bobo doll.
1/3 of children who observed the aggressive model repeated their verbal responses.
In a follow up study, children who saw the model being rewarded for aggressive acts were more likely to show a high level of aggression.

57
Q

Social Learning Theory
Evaluation
SLT has useful applications

A

The probability of engaging in criminal behaviour should increase when we are exposed to criminal models, identify with them, and develop expectations of positive consequences for our own criminal behaviour. Ulrich found evidence for this in delinquent peer groups. The research is therefore useful in aiding our understanding of how human behaviour is influenced and how we can deal with it.

58
Q

Social Learning Theory
Evaluation
Research support for identification

A

Research support for identification. Fox and Bailenson manipulated identification using computer generated virtual humans. These models looked either similar or dissimilar to the individual pps. Pps who identified with a virtual model exercising engaged in more exercise in the 24 hours following the experiment. Greater identification lead to more learning.

59
Q

Social Learning Theory
Evaluation
A problem of causality

A

Problem with clearly identifying direction of causality. Does being exposed to a deviant model corrupt behaviour, or are deviant individuals drawn to other deviants. Having deviant attitudes prior to exposure to deviant role models could explain delinquency. Siegel and McCormick suggest that young people who possess deviant attitudes seek out peers with similar attitudes before experiencing their deviant behaviours so the former may be more influential than the latter.

60
Q

Social Learning Theory
Evaluation
A problem of complexity

A

The power of social learning maybe over-emphasised as we are exposed to many different influences, for example genetic predisposition and the mass media making it difficult to show that one particular thing is the main causal influence.

61
Q

Cognitive

A

Relates to mental processes such as perception, memory and reasoning

62
Q

Cognitive neuroscience

A

An area of psychology dedicated to the underlying neural bases of cognitive functions

63
Q

Computer model

A

Refers to the process of using computer analogies as a representation of human cognition

64
Q

Inference/inferring

A

means reaching a logical conclusion on the basis of evidence and reasoning

65
Q

Schema

A

A cognitive framework that helps to organise and interpret information in the brain. Schemas help an individual to make sense of new information.

66
Q

Theoretical models

A

In cognitive psychology, models are simplified, usually pictorial, representations of a particular mental process based on current research evidence

67
Q

Basis of cognitive approach

A

Cognitive psychologists believe it is necessary to look at internal mental processes in order to understand behaviour.

68
Q

Schemas

A

The role of schemas- provide a cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information. They help us take short cuts but we ignore info that doesn’t fit. An example of this is we often stereotype as we do not take the time to process all of the information. It is also relevant to EWT as we build a picture of events that is based on schemas which may in fact be different to reality

69
Q

Theoretical models

A

Cognitive theorists also rely on theoretical models such as WMM which are a simplified and diagrammatic representation of cognitive processes. These are refined an understanding improves. AN example of this is that as understanding of the WMM has developed, new components such as the episodic buffer have been added.

70
Q

Computer models

A

Since the development of computers, computer metaphors have also been widely used to explain processes. For example RAM- is often used to explain Working memory. Computer models are also used to simulate human processing and test our understanding.

71
Q

Emergence of neuroscience

A

In recent years the development of neuroscience has helped to overcome one of the fundamental problems that of processing being inferred as it was previously non-observable. The invention of non-invasive techniques such as PET scans or fMRI- improved understanding by enabling us to actually see rather than infer. Eg when we feel guilty we can identify particular brain regions.

72
Q

Cognitive approach
Evaluation
The cognitive approach has useful applications

A

Useful applications- such as understanding of errors and biases helps us interpret behaviour. This understanding of psychopathology has led to treatment such as REBT. Such treatments recognise simpler patterns or faulty beliefs, and have led to therapies that change the thinking and lift the depression.

73
Q

Cognitive approach
Evaluation
The cognitive approach is scientific

A

Methodology used. The cognitive approach favours rigorous scientific methods. Conclusions therefore are based on more than introspection. This has meant that much less misleading conclusions are drawn and as a result we have a much more accurate understanding of behaviour.

74
Q

Cognitive approach
Evaluation
Limitations of computer models

A

Limitation- is the rigidity of the models. Therefore are large differences between computers and humans. Computers do not make mistakes, ignore info or forget. Humans do all of these making comparison difficult. Also cognitive approaches also often ignore key human characteristics such as emotion and motivation.

75
Q

Cognitive approach
Evaluation
Lack ecological validity

A

Good deal of the research lacks external validity. Findings often struggle to be generalisable outside of the lab setting. AN example would be memory tests often use work list and therefore are not valid. Experiments therefore often lack the realism to represent normal human behaviour.

76
Q

Biological approach

A

Views humans as biological organisms and so provides biological explanations for all aspects of psychological functioning

77
Q

Evolution

A

Refers to the change over successive generations of the genetic make-up of a particular population. The central proposition of an evolutionary perspective is that the genotype of a population is changeable rather than fixed, and that this change is likely to be caused by the process of natural selection

78
Q

Gene

A

A part of the chromosome of an organism that carries information in the form of DNA

79
Q

Genotype

A

The genetic make-up of an individual. The genotype is a collection of inherited genetic material that is passed from generation to generation

80
Q

Natural selection

A

The process by which inherited characteristics that enhance an individual’s reproductive success are passed on to the next generation, and so become more widespread in the population over time

81
Q

Neurochemistry

A

The study of chemical and neural processes associated with the nervous system

82
Q

Phenotype

A

The observable characteristics of an individual. This is a consequence of the interaction of the genotype with the environment.

83
Q

Basis of biological approach

A

Suggests behaviour is a result of genes, structures, neurochemistry and evolution

84
Q

Genes: the mechanisms of heredity

A

Our genes provide a genetic basis for characteristics such as personality and IQ. Heredity is passing on of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes. The argument about the relative contribution of genes and environment is the nature-nurture debate

85
Q

BA Genotype and phenotype

A

genotype is the unique genetic code that comprises the individuals DNA. Phenotype is the physical characteristics of the genotype.

86
Q

BA The genetic basis of behaviour

A

heritability is the amount of variability in a particular trait that can be attributed to individual genotype differences. Studies of identical twins suggest 60-80% of variability of IQ is genetic.

87
Q

BA Neurons and the nervous system

A

The nervous system transmits impulses via nerve cells (neurons), They comprise the CNS- brain and spinal cord- and the PNS the somatic and autonomic nervous system.

88
Q

BA The brain

A

Our brain structure or composition influences our behaviour. The cerebrum makes up 85% of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres each with four lobes. It’s outer surface, the cerebral cortex is responsible for higher order thinking- thoughts and language.

89
Q

BA Neurotransmitters

A

Neurochemistry via neurotransmitters influence our behaviour. Nerve impulses travel between the synapse any means of neurotransmitters. Some are excitatory (dopamine) and some are inhibitory (serotonin).

90
Q

BA Hormones

A

Hormones are chemicals produced in our glands comprising the endocrine system. The brain signals glands to release of hormones directly into the bloodstream and stimulate receptors on target cell.

91
Q

BA Evolution and behaviour

A

Influenced in evolutionary terms through sexual selection. Darwin suggested in terms of evolution animals produce many off spring to promote survival, mutations enable animals to cope with changing environments. The strongest survive and are able to reproduce. Those individuals with the strongest genes are also more sexually successful so pass on their genes and so the process continues.

92
Q

Biological approach
Evaluation
The importance of the scientific method

A

Relies on the scientific method which allows biological psychologists to replicate research studies to check their soundness

93
Q

Biological approach
Evaluation
Applications of the biological approach

A

Important applications due to the clear predictions that can be made. Research into neurochemical imbalance in depression and OCS has led to effective drug treatments. Research into circadian rhythms has led to better understanding of shift work.

94
Q

Biological approach
Evaluation
Reductionist

A

Can be viewed as reductionist. neurochemical and hormonal explanations of mental disorders are reductionist and arguably ignore cognitive, emotional and cultural influences. A further weakness lies in the fact that evolutionary ideas are assumed to be responsible whereas culture clearly plays a role in the development of behaviour.

95
Q

Biological approach
Evaluation
Danger from genetic explanations

A

Danger from genetic explanations. Genetic explanations of behaviour may be poorly understood and potentially abused e.g. screening could identify those with a genetic predisposition for criminality but underplay the complexity of causes leading to discrimination.

Psychology (4 decks)

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