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psychology (W) > approaches of psychology > Flashcards

approaches of psychology Flashcards

1
Q

what is psychology?

A

the scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions effecting behaviour in given context

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2
Q

what are the 4 features of science?

A

control
objectivity
replicability
empiricism

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3
Q

what is control?

A

keeping the conditions the same

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4
Q

what is objectivity?

A

without bias or influence

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5
Q

what is replicability?

A

when something is repeatable

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6
Q

what is empiricism?

A

something that is gained through senses

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7
Q

what does the word psychology come from?

A

the greek word “psyche” meaning mind and the greek word “logos” meaning study of

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8
Q

who are the three philosophers that had an impact on the development of psychology?

A

Rene Descartes- a french philosopher (1596- 1650)
John Locke- (1632- 1704)
Charles Darwin- (1809- 1882)

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9
Q

what did Rene Descartes suggest?

A

that the mind and body were independent from one another (cartesian dualism)

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10
Q

what is Cartesian dualism?

A

a philosophical stance suggesting that mind and body are independent from each other

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11
Q

what did John Locke propose?

A

Empiricism- the idea that all experience can be obtained through the senses + human beings inherit neither knowledge or instincts

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12
Q

What was charles darwin’s theory?

A

that all human and animal behaviour has changed over successive generations. individuals with stronger more adaptive genes survive and reproduce (survival of the fittest)

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13
Q

why is Wilhelm Wundts work significant?

A

it marked the beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from its broader philosophical roots

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14
Q

How did Wundt mark the beginning of scientific psychology?

A

by setting up the first psychology laboratory in Liepzig germany in the 1870s

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15
Q

what was Wundts aim?

A

to analyse the nature of human consciousness and the first attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions

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16
Q

what was Wundts method to study the mind under controlled conditions called ?

A

introspection

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17
Q

what does introspection mean?

A

“looking into” it is the examination of one’s thoughts

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18
Q

what was the standardised procedure to study the brain under controlled conditions ?

A

participants focused on a complex stimulus after which they reported back their conscious thoughts during the task. asked to report back their inner experiences, revealing people are consciously aware of sensations, feelings, images and their own thoughts

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19
Q

what did Wundt claim ?

A

that with sufficient training, mental processes such as memory and perception could be observed systematically as they occurred using introspection.

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20
Q

what did participants have to describe back in the experiments?

A

the intensity, the duration, the mode and quality
feelings could be described as pleasant or unpleasant, tension or relaxation, activity or passivity

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21
Q

what is structuralism?

A

isolating the structure of consciousness ( the stimuli that wundt experienced was always presented in the same order and the same instructions were issued)

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22
Q

what is one strength of Wundts work?

A

some of his methods were systematic and well controlled ( scientific) in a controlled environment

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23
Q

what was one limitation to wundts work?

A

other aspects of his research was unscientific. he relied on participants self reporting which is subjective (influenced by personal perspective)

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24
Q

what does the psychodynamic approach state

A

that unconscious forces in our mind determine our thoughts feelings and behaviours. our behaviour as adults is influenced by our childhood

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25
Q

what are the main assumptions of psychodynamic approach

A

unconscious forces determine thoughts feelings and behaviour

our adult behaviour is
influenced by childhood

abnormal behaviour is a result of mental conflict

the mind is divided into three levels of consciousness

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26
Q

what did freud propose

A

there are diff levels of consciousness and metaphor of iceberg is used

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27
Q

what is the conscious

A

the small amount of mental activity we know about. responsible for dealing with our everyday actions of the present

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28
Q

what is preconscious

A

things we could be aware of if we wanted or tried. responsible for storing easily accessible memories and past events

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29
Q

what is the unconscious

A

things we are unaware of and can not become aware of. stores all our experiences especially those of a traumatic or unpleasant nature

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30
Q

what are examples of the conscious

A

thoughts and perceptions

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31
Q

what are examples of preconscious

A

memories and stored knowledge

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32
Q

what are examples of the unconscious

A

fears, violent motives, immoral urges , selfish needs, traumatic experiences

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33
Q

what are the three parts of the personality

A

the id, the ego and the superego

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34
Q

when is the id present

A

at birth

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35
Q

when is the ego present

A

at age 2/3

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36
Q

when is the superego present

A

age 4/5

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37
Q

what is the id

A

the impulsive and unconscious part that demands immediate satisfaction ( pleasure principle) if frustrated it becomes aggressive

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38
Q

what is the pleasure principle

A

the demanding of immediate satisfaction from the id

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39
Q

what is the ego

A

the conscious, rational part of the mind that develops around 2 years. works out realistic ways of balancing the demands of the id in a socially acceptable way . (reality principle)

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40
Q

what is the superego

A

last part of personality to develop. represents child’s sense of right and wrong and ideal self. seeks to perfect and civilise behaviour. moral part and when we don’t it punishes through anxiety and guilt

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41
Q

what are examples of the ids needs

A

hunger thirst and sex

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42
Q

what is the dynamic ideal

A

3 components being in a state of balance

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43
Q

what are some of the key defence mechanisms

A

denial, displacement, repression, projection, regression, rationalisation

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44
Q

what is denial

A

the unconscious refusal to accept reality

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45
Q

what is displacement

A

take anger or impulse and divert it from its source onto something else

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46
Q

what is repression

A

burying of the problem into unconscious so that you no longer think about them

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47
Q

what is projection

A

disguising their own threatening impulses by pinning them on other people ( blame)

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48
Q

rationalisation

A

justifying actions and covering them up

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49
Q

what was the psychosexual theory ?

A

the sexual energy is present right from birth, unconscious desires that children are not aware of

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50
Q

who came up with the psychosexual theory

A

freud

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51
Q

what are erogenous zones

A

the different parts of our bodies become particularly sensitive as we grow

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52
Q

what is libido

A

our sexual energy

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53
Q

what happens on each of the 5 stages of development

A

our sexual energy is focused on a particular body organ

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54
Q

what were the 5 stages called

A

the psychosexual stages of development

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55
Q

what are the stages in order

A

oral, anal, phallic latency and genital

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56
Q

when does the oral stage occur

A

0-1 year

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57
Q

what is the oral stage

A

mouth is the focus of sensation and pleasurable experience- organ of pleasure.biological evidence that babies have more nerve endings in area ID is dominant actions are based on the pleasure principle. Freud suggested that an individual could become fixated in this stage if they were either under or over fed as a baby.
The key experience in this stage is weaning.

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58
Q

why is weaning a key experience in the oral stage

A

child loses intimate contact with mother and first feeling of loss ever experienced by baby

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59
Q

when does the anal stage occur

A

1-3 years

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60
Q

what is the anal stage

A

the organ of pleasure is the anus- child derives pleasure from retention and expulsion of faeces. child becomes aware of demands of reality and parent begins to impose potty training, first time restrictions imposter on behaviour. ego develops

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61
Q

what causes child to be fixated on anal stage ?

A

too lax or too strict on potty training

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62
Q

what are the outcomes of fixation on the anal stage

A

anally retentive ( obsession with detail and controlling) or anally expulsive ( cruelty and emotional outbursts)

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63
Q

when does the phallic stage occur

A

3-6 years

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64
Q

what is the phallic stage

A

the organ of pleasure is now genitals, child becomes aware of gender differences and becomes obsessed with own genitals- most important stage according to freud where the oedipus complex occurs

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65
Q

what is the oedipus complex

A

occurs during phallic stage. originates from greek tragedy of kick oedipus who married mother and killed father. it suggests that children in phallic stage have unconscious sexual desires for their opposite sex parent. makes them resentful of same sex parent as they see them as a competitor for love

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66
Q

what does the oedipus complex suggest about boys

A

the unconsciously desire their mothers but realise their father is bigger and stronger so they can’t compete. when they realise girls don’t have a penis they think they have been castrated and fear their father will do the same to them if desire for mother is uncovered. known as castration anxiety. boys then become more like father so that father will like them and not want to castrate them

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67
Q

what was freuds opinion on girls

A

theories he made about girls were only after thoughts. he viewed femininity as failed masculinity. argued that girls believe their mother must have already castrated them and turn to fathers for love in hope of regaining penis. they suffer penis envy for rest of their lives and only way to resolve is by having a male baby

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68
Q

when is the latency stage

A

6 years to puberty

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69
Q

what is the latency stage

A

sexual desires remain dormant. children want nothing to do with other sex as social and intellectual development occurs

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70
Q

when is the genital stage

A

puberty- maturity

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71
Q

what is the genital stage

A

marks the beginning of mature adult sexuality. the calm of latency is disrupted as the id makes powerful demands in the form of heterosexual desires. opposite sex is now needed to satisfy libido

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72
Q

what is the phrase that helps you remember the order

A

Old Age Pensioners Love Guinness

73
Q

what is the order of the psychosexual stages

A

oral anal phallic latency genital

74
Q

what is fixation

A

conflict can occur in each stage (except latency). If the child receives too much or too little stimulation the libido might become fixated in this stage. This would seriously affect the development of the adult personality. Fixation in the genital stage is normal (NB this means Freud viewed homosexuality as abnormal!)

75
Q

what is a healthy resolution of the oral stage

A

Ability to form relationships with others and accept their affection; enjoyment of food and drink

76
Q

what happens if oral stage is ended too soon

A

aggressiveness, domination, pessimism, envy and suspicion.
Signs include chewing gum or ends of pens.

77
Q

what happens if oral stage is ended too late

A

optimistic, gullible, over dependant on others, trusting, and full of admiration for others. Signs include smoking/ eating.

78
Q

what is the healthy resolution of the anal stage

A

The ability to deal with authority and to have a balance between being orderly and being disorganised

79
Q

what happens if you are too strict in anal stage

A

neat, stingy, precise, orderly and obstinate.
Obsession with organisation and excessive neatness.

80
Q

what happens if you are too lenient in anal stage

A

generous, messy, disorganised, careless, and defiant, reckless, hot tempered & destructive.

81
Q

what is the healthy resolution of the phallic stage

A

development of a conscience and mature morale development

82
Q

what can fixation on the phallic stage cause

A

reckless, self-assured and a harsh, punitive superego, and may have problems with sex and sexual identity. Freud suggested that a fixation at this stage may lead to homosexuality.

83
Q

what does the behaviourist approach assume

A

that we are born neutral with no inherent personality (blank slate) and it is environment that shapes you

84
Q

what are the main assumptions of the behaviourist approach

A

when born mind is blank slate
all behaviour is learnt from environment

85
Q

what is the key study in classical conditioning

A

pavlov investigated the salivation in digestion and became interested in how dogs learned to salivate before food was presented to them. her and a bell when presenting the food and then the dog started to just salivate at the sound of the bell alone ( classical conditioning)

86
Q

what is classical conditioning

A

learning by association

87
Q

who discovered classical conditioning

A

pavlov in 1927

88
Q

what was pavlovs key study and how did it work

A

an unconditioned stimulus( the food) leads to an unconditioned response ( salivation)

a neutral stimulus ( bell) produces no response

pairing the neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus creates association with unconditioned response

after regular pairing, the neutral stimulus on its own becomes conditioned stimulus and leads to conditioned response ( salivation)

89
Q

what is the unconditioned stimulus in pavlovs experiment

A

the food

90
Q

what is the unconditioned response in pavlovs experiment

A

salivation

91
Q

what is stimulus generalisation

A

other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (e.g. bells of different pitch and tone) will also lead to the conditioned response even though they have never been directly associated with the response

92
Q

what is stimulus discrimination

A

If many different neutral stimuli are experienced, but only one is reliably paired with the unconditioned stimulus, there can be stimulus discrimination whereby only one specific stimulus will become the conditioned stimulus.

93
Q

what is temporal contiguity

A

the unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus have to be paired together at or around same time for association to be created

94
Q

what was the little albert study

A

baby shown dog monkey, burning paper, and white rat ( no fear)
then shown white rat with loud noise multiple times ( fear)

then shown white rat without noise and he cried ( fear)

95
Q

what were the positives and negatives of the little albert study

A

p
lab experiment so high control and objective
high in internal validity

n
not moral or ethical- left psychologically harmed
issues with reliability
low realism

96
Q

what is operant conditioning

A

a behaviourist theory that focuses on stimulus response learning. focuses on the role of learning from the consequences of our behaviour

97
Q

what research did Skinner do ?

A

he placed rats into a cage where food was delivered to them when they pressed a lever and they quickly learnt to press it to get food

he also used a box that gave the rat an electric shock under the rats feet until a lever was pressed
another variation delivered a shock when the lever was pressed

in both rats quickly learn what would leave to the most positive consequence

98
Q

what is positive reinforcement

A

a reward as a positive consequence of the action

99
Q

what is negituve reinforcement

A

removing something unpleasant as a positive

100
Q

what is punishment

A

negative consequence of an action

101
Q

what is positive punishment

A

where an unpleasant action is given as a consequence of behaviour eg slapping the hand of a child when they play with a plug socket

102
Q

what is negative punishment

A

where something pleasant is removed as a consequence of behaviour eg. fine for parking

103
Q

what are the positives of operant conditioning

A

it is effective way for both animals and people to learn

therapy based on operant conditioning have been shown to be effective for treating many different problematic behaviours

104
Q

what are the negatives of operant conditioning

A

skinners work conducted on animals has been criticised for then being applied to humans- humans often have thoughts associated with learning that not take. into account

much of the research taken place on animals breached ethical guidelines

105
Q

what are determinist approaches

A

they suggest that our behaviour is entirely or at least partly shaped by forces over which we have no control

106
Q

what does the humanistic approach claim

A

that human beings are essentially self determining and have free will- ability to determine own development even when affected by external or internal influences

107
Q

what are the basic assumptions of the humanistic approach

A

humans have free will- not al behaviour is determined- people have full conscious control of their own destiny

psychology should study individual person and their experiences rather than applying general laws

each person is a rational and conscious being not dominated by unconscious instincts

all individuals are unity and are motivated to achieve their potential

108
Q

what was Maslows theory

A

was interested in finding what could go right
proposed the hierarchy of needs- a pyramid with the most basic needs at bottom and higher needs at top
emphasised importance of human growth

109
Q

who proposed the theory of the Hierarchy of needs

A

Maslow

110
Q

what is the rule of the hierarchy of needs in order to move up it

A

each lever must be fulfilled before the individual can move up

111
Q

what are the 5 stages of the hierarchy of needs

A

physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, self actualisation

112
Q

what was the first stage of the hierarchy of needs and what did it include

A

physiological- breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, excretion

113
Q

what is the second stage of the hierarchy of needs and what does it include

A

safety- security of body, employment, resources, family, health, property

114
Q

what is the third stage of the hierarchy of needs and what does it include

A

love and belonging- friendship, family, sexual intimacy

115
Q

what is the fourth stage of the hierarchy of needs and what does it include

A

esteem- self esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others and by others

116
Q

what is the 5th stage of the hierarchy of needs and what does it include

A

self actualisation- morality, creativity, problem solving

117
Q

what happens if needs are not met in the physiological stage of the hierarchy of needs

A

you will begin to crave food and water

118
Q

what happens if needs are met in the physiological stage of the hierarchy of needs

A

no cravings higher needs present themselves

119
Q

what if needs are not met on the safety stage of the hierarchy of needs

A

become anxious and display fight or flight

120
Q

what happens if needs are met on the safety stage of the hierarchy of needs

A

experience physical security

121
Q

what happens if needs are not met in the love stage of the hierarchy of needs

A

lonely, withdrawal and rejected

122
Q

what happens if needs are met in the live stage of the hierarchy of needs

A

mutual love and trust and freedom

123
Q

what happens if needs are not met on esteem stage of hierarchy of needs

A

fearful of criticism failure and risks

124
Q

what happens if needs are met on esteem stage of hierarchy of needs

A

confident and show self belief and respect
step outside comfort zone

125
Q

what will happen if needs are not met on self actualisation stage of hierarchy of needs

A

view life as meaningless and become restless and bored . avoid growth

126
Q

what happens if needs are met on self actualisation stage on hierarchy of needs

A

desire to develop, creative positive and energetic

127
Q

what did roger’s argue must happen for personal growth to be achieved

A

an individuals concept of self ( the way they see themselves) must be broadly equivalent to or have congruence to their ideal self

128
Q

what will happen is the gap between ideal self and an individuals concept of self is too different

A

will experience a state of incongruence and self actualisation is not possible

129
Q

what is incongruence

A

whe. ideal self is very different to the way individuals see themselves

130
Q

what did roger’s claim caused low self esteem as adults

A

roots to childhood- lack of unconditional postive regard from parents
boundaries or limits to a parents love( conditions of worth)

131
Q

what are conditions of worth

A

boundaries or limits to a parents love
eg i will only love you if….

132
Q

how did rodger’s aim to close the gap between the self concept and the ideal self

A

he developed client- centred therapy
refers to them as clients rather than patients
client is encouraged towards the discovery or their own solutions
applied now to anxiety and low self worth

133
Q

what is free will

A

the ability to make choices in how you act - full conscious control over destiny

134
Q

what is self actualisation

A

the motivation to reach potential

135
Q

what is “the self “

A

how we perceive ourselves for personal growth this must be close to ideal self

136
Q

what is congruence

A

the fit/ match between a persons ideal self and how they perceive themselves

137
Q

what does the cognitive approach argue

A

that internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically, they look at things other behaviourists did not like memory, perception and thinking

138
Q

what are inferences

A

the process whereby cognitive psychologist draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate on the bases of observed behaviour

139
Q

what are schema

A

packages of ideas and info developed through experience. they act as a mental framework for interpretation of incoming info received by cognitive system

140
Q

what happens to our schema, as we get older

A

it becomes more detailed and sophisticated- adults have developed mental representations for everything

141
Q

what do schemas enable us to do

A

process lots of info quickly prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli

142
Q

what is an important theoretical model for cognitive approach

A

the information processing approach which suggests that info flows though cognitive system in a sequence of stages including input, storage and retrieval as the multi store model

143
Q

what is cognitive neuroscience

A

the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions

144
Q

what are the main assumptions of the learning approach and social learning theory

A

behaviour is learned from experience

we learn through observation and imitation of others

learning occurs directly( through classical and operant) but also indirectly

145
Q

what is a key study of the social learning theory

A

albert bandura
suggests that children learn through imitation
“bobo doll experiment”

146
Q

what happened in the bobo doll experiment

A

kids put in room of toys with one adult and a big doll called bobo doll

adult attacked the doll for 10 mins then adult left the room

kids were then monitored and they also attacked the doll in the same way

the kids that did not watch violent adults were also less violent to doll

147
Q

what are the 4 processes involved with social learning

A

attention
retention
reproduction
motivation

148
Q

what factors mean behaviour is more likely to be imitated

A

a more similar role model eg age or gender
or a role model that is seen in a positive light

149
Q

what is vicarious reinforcement

A

learning that is not a result of direct reinforcement of behaviour but through observing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour

150
Q

what is the biological approach

A

the influence of genes, biological structures and neurochemistry on behaviour.
Genotype and phenotype, genetic basis of behaviour, evolution and behaviour

151
Q

what are genes

A

make up chromosomes and consist of
DNA which codes the physical features of an organism (such as eye colour, height) and psychological features (such as mental disorder, intelligence). Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring

152
Q

what is biological structure

A

an arrangement or organisation of parts to form and organ system or loving thing

153
Q

what is neurochemistry

A

relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning

154
Q

what is the genotype

A

the particular set of genes that a person possesses

155
Q

what is the phenotype

A

the characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment

156
Q

what is evolution

A

the changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations

157
Q

what do behaviour geneticists study

A

whether behavioural characteristics such as intelligence, personality and mental disorders are inherited in the same way physical characteristics

158
Q

what are twin studies used for

A

to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic based by comparing concentration rates between twins

159
Q

what are twin studies

A

studying twins to see the extent to which twins share the same characteristics

160
Q

which type of twins are more similar, identical or non identical

A

identical

161
Q

what is an example of ways that people study human genetics in a ethical way

A

dizygotic and monozygotic twins

162
Q

what are dizygotic twins

A

non identical twins

163
Q

what are features of dizygotic twins

A

dare 50% of their genes like any other children from the same couple of parents

are the product of two sperms fertilising 2 eggs

164
Q

what are monozygotic twins

A

identical twins

165
Q

what are the features of monozygotic twins

A

they share 100% of genes

product of one egg fertilised by one sperm. early on in development the cells of the embryo split into two groups and develop two embryos

are a clone

166
Q

what is the degree of concordance

A

the degree of similarity between two individuals

167
Q

what is genotype determined by

A

alleles

168
Q

what are the steps of natural selection

A

variation- there is variation in a population

competition- overproduction of offspring leads to competition for survival

adaptations- individuals with beneficial adaptations are more likely to survive and pass on genes

selection- over generations, change in allele frequency

169
Q

what is sexual selection

A

the reproduction and passing on of genes

170
Q

what is intersexual selection

A

looks at preference of each sex ( what each sex looks for)

171
Q

what is intrasexual selection

A

mate competition- males compete with each other for female whichever male wins passes on genes

172
Q

what is the explanation for the factor of genetics in the biological approach

A

The genes we inherit from our parents provide the
‘blueprint’ for our bodies and brains. A slight abnormality in the genes could result in abnormalities in a person’s brain functioning with the
consequence that their behaviour becomes abnormal.

173
Q

what is an example of the factor of genetics in the biological approach

A

twin and adoption studies, OCD, schizophrenia, aggression

174
Q

what is an explanation of the factor of neurochemistry in the biological approach

A

To operate properly, the brain relies on hundreds of different chemicals being in correct balance.chemicals (neurotransmitters and hormones) are used to send messages round the brain and nervous system, too much or too little of them can cause the brain to function abnormally.

175
Q

what is an example of the factor of neurochemistry in biological approach

A

dopamine realeased in brain when pleasure

176
Q

what is the explanation for infection in the biological approach

A

The brain itself has no immune response. It relies on keeping infections (e.g. bacteria or viruses) out with a barrier. Infections that get into the brain can cause widespread damage, and if the brain is damaged then a person may start to have abnormal experiences or to behave in abnormal ways.

177
Q

what is an example of the factor of infection in the biological approach

A

clive wearing- 7 second memory

178
Q

what is the explanation for neuroanatomy in the biological approach

A

The brain’s structure can also be damaged or improperly formed during development. This would then impact the person’s ability to think, and their emotional responses, therefore their behaviour may change.

179
Q

what is an example of the factor of neuroanatomy in the biological approach

A

addiction

phineus gage- survived pole through head

psychology (W) (2 decks)

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