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biology spec > b3 infection and response > Flashcards

b3 infection and response Flashcards

1
Q

what are pathogens?

A

microorganisms that cause infectious disease in animals and plants

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2
Q

what do they rely on to grow?

A

their host’s nutrients and conditions

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3
Q

what are the four types of pathogens?

A

bacteria, fungus, virus and protist

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4
Q

what are communicable diseases?

A

diseases that can spread fro organism to organism

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5
Q

how do bacteria cause damage?

A

divide rapidly via binary fission
they then produce toxins damage the cells and tissue

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6
Q

methods that the body counterattacks invading pathogens

A

1) phagocytosis
2) production of antibodies
3) production of antitoxins

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7
Q

what is phagocytosis?

A

when the white blood cell engulfs the invading pathogen and digest them

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8
Q

what is the production of antibodies?

A

when the white blood cells start to produce proteins (called antibodies), which lock onto the invading pathogen, then can be found by another WBC and destroyed

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9
Q

what feature of the antibodies makes it so that they dont lock onto anything other than the desired pathogen?

A

they are specific to the antigen on the pathogen

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10
Q

what causes immunity?

A

after the WBC have produced the specific antibodies for the pathogen, if this same pathogen type re-enters, the antibodies will be made more rapidly, destroying the pathogen

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11
Q

what does the production of antibodies rely on?

A

the detection of unknown/ unfamiliar antigen

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12
Q

what is the production of antitoxins?

A

when pathogens produce toxins, the WBC produce antibodies to neutralise them

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13
Q

how do viruses cause harm to the body?

A

they break the cell wall and invade it
they then use the structures inside the cell to reproduce, which damages the cell until it bursts,
this could cause cancer

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14
Q

how do protist cause harm?

A

they are insects or bugs that spread disease from one organism to another

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15
Q

how do fungi cause harm?

A

invade tissue and disrupt their function to reproduce, taking nutrients from the host

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16
Q

how can pathogens spread via air?

A

1) droplets containing pathogens fly into the air when people sneeze or cough and can get breathed in by others
2) some fungal spores can float through the air and land on something they can infect

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17
Q

how can pathogens spread via contact?

A

microbes can be passed by skin-to-skin contact with an infected person, or when handelling something that an infected person has touched

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18
Q

how can pathogens be spread via water?

A

water can contain harmful microbes if not treated with chlorine or boiled. microbes can get in the body when water is swallowed

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19
Q

how can pathogens be spread via food?

A

food can have harmful microbes in them, microbes can get in the body when food swallowed, causing food poisoning

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20
Q

what are the body’s defence mechanisms?

A

1) the skin serves a protective barrier and secretes antimicrobial substances
2) the hairs and mucus in the nose trap particles which may contain pathogens
3) the trachea and bronchi secretes mucus to trap pathogens. and lined with cilia which waft up mucus to the back of the throat where it can be swallowed
4) the stomach produces hydrochloric acid which kills pathogens
5) the tears in eyes contain enzymes which kill pathogens. plus eyelashes

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21
Q

what are examples of viral diseases?

A

measles
HIV
tobacco mosaic virus

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22
Q

what is measles? symptoms? how is it spread?

A

1) viral disease
SYMPTOMS: red skin rash and symptoms of a fever
SPREAD BY: droplets from an infected person’s sneeze or cough

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23
Q

how can measles be prevented?

A

vaccinations

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24
Q

what is HIV? symptoms? how is it spread?

A

1) virus disease
SYMPTOMS: flu-like symptoms for a few weeks and muscle and joint pain
SPREAD BY: sexual contact or by exchanging bodily fluids eg blood

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25
Q

how can HIV be treated/ controlled?

A

1) it can be controlled by giving the patient antiretroviral drugs to stop the virus from replicating

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26
Q

effects of HIV with other diseases?

A

can weaken the immune system so badly that it cant cope with other infections or cancers. atp it is known as AIDS

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27
Q

what is tobacco mosaic disease? symptoms? how is it spread?

A

1) viral disease
SYMPTOMS: discolouration in leaves and mosaic pattern which affects growth
SPREAD BY: contact, eg workers hands

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28
Q

what are examples of bacterial diseases?

A

salmonella
gonorrhoea

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29
Q

what is salmonella infection? symptoms? how is it spread?

A

1) bacterial disease that causes food poisoning
SYMPTOMS: fever, stomach cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea
SPREAD BY: eating food which is contaminated with salmonella bacteria eg eating chicken that has the disease when it was alive

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30
Q

what is gonorrhoea? symptoms? how is it spread?

A

1) sexually transmitted bacterial disease
SYMPTOMS: pain during urination, thick yellow/green discharge from the vagina or penis
SPREAD BY: sexual contact eg unprotected sex

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31
Q

what was gonorrhoea initially treated with?

A

an antibiotic called penicillin

32
Q

why is the initial method of treating gonorrhoea less effective now?

A

strains of the bacteria have become resistant to it

33
Q

an example of prevention method for gonorrhoea?

A

condom (barrier methods)

34
Q

what is an example of a fungal disease?

A

rose black spot

35
Q

what is rose black spot? symptoms? how is it spread?

A

1) a fungal disease
SYMPTOMS: purple or black spots developing on rose plant leaves
SPREAD BY: water or wind

36
Q

how is rose black spot treated?

A

gardeners use fungicide and stripping the plant of it’s affected leaves and destroy them

37
Q

what is an example of a protist disease?

A

malaria

38
Q

what is malaria? symptoms? how is it spread?

A

1) protist disease
SYMPTOMS: repeated episodes of fever symptoms and could be fatal
SPREAD BY: vectors

39
Q

how can you prevent malaria?

A

insecticides or mosquito nets

40
Q

how to prevent disease?

A

1) being hygienic
2) destroying vectors
3) isolating infected individuals
4) vaccination

41
Q

how do vaccinations work?

A

involves injecting a small amount of a dead or inactive pathogen into the body (this way it doesnt cause any harm), the WBC use a trial- and- error method to create the specific antibody that will kill the pathogen. the WBC then become familiar with the antigen of the pathogen and are able to produce antibodies more quickly the next time the same pathogen is in the body

42
Q

what is herd immunity and why is it important?

A

the more population that is immune to a disease, the lower the chances of a disease spreading because those who are immune are less likely to spread the disease onto anyone else. therefore the whole community is immune

43
Q

traditionally, where where drugs extracted from?

A

plants and microorganisms

44
Q

where does heart drug digitalis originate from?

A

foxglove

45
Q

where does the painkiller, aspirin, originate from?

A

willow

46
Q

where does penicillin originate from?

A

penicillium mould

47
Q

where are most drugs synthesised at?

A

the pharmaceutical industry

48
Q

what is the function of painkillers?

A

to relieve pain, they dont tackle to cause of the disease or kill pathogens, they just help to reduce symptoms

49
Q

what is the function of antibiotics?

A

they kill/ prevent the growth of the bacteria causing the problem.
however they do not destroy viruses as they reproduce using the person’s own body cells which makes it difficult to create drugs that can kill the virus without killing the cell

50
Q

what can happen if a bacteria mutates?

A

it can cause them to be resistant against the antibiotic

51
Q

what happens if you try to treat a patient with a resistant strain of bacteria?

A

1) only the non-resistant straints will be killed
2) the resistant would still be alive and reproduce, increasing the population of resistant strain. this is an example of natural selection

52
Q

how can you reduce the rate of the development of resistant strains?

A

1) doctors over-prescribing antibiotics

53
Q

whats one thing that a patient should make sure to do when given antibiotics?

A

finish the whole course because if they dont then maybe there are still bacteria living in their body but just a minimal amount which means that they dont cause any symptoms

54
Q

what are the 3 main stages in drug testing?

A

first stage of pre-clinical
second stage of pre-clinical
clinical trials

55
Q

what happens in the first stage of pre-clinical trials?

A

drugs are tested on human cells and tissue. it is done to test how harmful they are to bodily cells.
- however u can just use this to test drugs that affect the body or multiple organ systems

56
Q

what happens in the second stage of pre-clinical trials?

A

drugs are tested on live animals. this is to test for efficacy, toxicity and to see which dosage it dhould be given in.
- this is to make sure that the drug is safe before giving it to humans, there is an ethical issue though as animals are God’s creation too

57
Q

what happens in the clinical trials?

A

drugs are tested on human volunteers.
1) a very low dosage is given to healthy volunteers, this is gradually increased.
2) if the results on the healthy humans are good, then it can be tested on people with the illness, given the optimum dose
3) a placebo will be given by the doctors to make sure that the results are not subconciously influenced

58
Q

what is a placebo?

A

a substance that is like the drug being tested but doesnt actually do anything

59
Q

how are the clinical trials more reliable?

A

they are double blind, so the doctors and patients dont know who has received the placebos. this is to avoid any biases that the doctors may make if they knew who has the placebos and who didnt

60
Q

what is the final stage of the clinical trials?

A

the results of the drug testing are peer reviewed and then published. this is to prevent false claims

61
Q

background info abt the production of antibodies and MABs

A

1) antibodies are produced by B-lymphocytes- a type of WBC
2) MABs produced from lots of clones on a single WBC, this means that all the antibodies are identical and will only target one type of antigen
3) so scientists fuse tumour cells and lymphocytes to form a hybridoma

62
Q

how are MABs made?

A

1) inject a mouse with a foreign antigen
2) this stimulates the lymphocytes to produce antibodies
3) collect these lymphocytes, however lymphocytes dont divide by mitosis
4) so we fuse the lymphocytes with a tumour cell to make it divide more quickly
5) the cell produced is called a Hybridoma. they can produce antibodies and divide by mitosis
6) select single hybridoma cell which produces the antibodies we cant and let it divide by mitosis
7) collect the MABs and purify them

63
Q

what are some of the uses of monoclonal antibodies?

A

1) used in pregnancy tests
2) be used to treat specific diseases eg cancer
3) can be used for research in labs

64
Q

what hormone is only found in the urine of women when they are pregnant?

A

HCG

65
Q

how are MABs used in pregnancy tests?

A

1) the part where you wee has some antibodies to the hormone HCG, with blue beads attached
2) the test strip has more antibodies to the hormone HCG stuck onto it

66
Q

what is the result of a positive pregnancy test in the terms of the antibodies?

A

the hormone binds to the antibodies on the blue beads and the urine moves up the stick, carrying the hormone and beads. the beads and hormone bind to the antibodies on the strip. therefore the blue beads get stuck on the strip, turning it blue

67
Q

what is the result of a negative pregnancy test in the terms of antibodies?

A

the urine still moves up the blue beads but theres nothing to stick the blue beads onto the test strip, therefore it doesnt go blue

68
Q

how can MABs be used to treat cancer/ a tumour?

A

1) MABs can be made to bind onto tumour markers
2) an anti-cancer drug can be attached to these MABs. eg a radioactive substance or toxic drug
3) the antibodies are given to the patient through a drip and they specifically target the cancer cells
4) therefore the drugs only kill the cancer cells, and not the normal cells around it

69
Q

how can MABs be used in labs?

A

1) bind hormones and other chemicals in blood to measure their levels
2) test samples for certain pathogens
3) locate specific molecules on a cell or tissue (done by binding a fluorescent dye onto the MABs and if the molecule is found, the MAB will bind to it and this can be detected through the dye)

70
Q

what are some disadvantages to MAbs?

A

1) could cause cancer
2) fever symptoms
3) muscle aches and pains

71
Q

how can you detect a plant disease?

A

1) stunted growth
2) unusual patterns on leaf
3) areas of decay
4) discolouration
5) discovery of pests

72
Q

how can you identify the specific disease of a plant?

A

1) reference to a gardening website
2) taking the infected plant to a lab to test for the pathogen
3) using testing kits that contain MABs

73
Q

describe different physical defences that a plant may have

A

1) waxy cuticle which provides a barrier to stop pathogens from entering
2) well walls made from cellulose to form a physical barrier if the pathogen passes the waxy cuticle
3) layers of dead cells around their stems which act as a barrier to stop pathogens from entering

74
Q

describe the different chemical defences that a plant may have

A

1) production of antibacterial chemicals which kill bacteria
2) production of poisons

75
Q

describe the different mechanical defences that a plant may have

A

1) thorns and hairs to stop animals from touching our eating them
2) leaves that can droop or curl to knock insects off themselves and moving away from things
3) mimicking other organisms to look like rocks or pebbles to prevent being eaten

biology spec (6 decks)

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