Behavioral Sciences Ch. 4: Cognition, Consciousness, and Language

Question 1

“List the steps in the information processing model of cognition.”

Answer 1

Encode, Store/organize, Retreival

Question 2

What is Dual Coding Theory and what are it’s benefits?

Answer 2

-both verbal and visual used to process/store the same info.
-gives redundancy therefore increasing chance of retreival.

Question 3

What are the 4 pillars of the information processing model?

Answer 3

• Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli.
• Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (vs. reflexes) to be useful in decision making.
• Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated/adjusted to help solve new problems (situational modification).
• Problem solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level, but also on context/complexity of the problem.

Question 4

Jean Piaget

Answer 4

Influential figure in developmental psychology
- Piaget’s Stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational)
- Piaget’s explanations of learning (Infants through instinctual interactions with environment, concept of schema as organized pattern of behavior and thought, adaptation=assimilation+accommodation)

Question 5

Define assimilation and accommodation in relation to Piaget’s explanation of adaptation.

Answer 5

1) Assimilation - Classifying new information into an existing schema
2) Accommodation - Existing schemata modified to encompass new info if needed

Question 6

Give age, defining features, and end markers of sensorimotor stage of development

Answer 6

Age: birth-2yo
- Learns to manipulate environment to meet physical needs
- Learns to coordinate sensory input with motor actions
- Primary circular reactions - repetitions of body movements that originally occur randomly
- Secondary circular reactions - repeated manipulations focused on response it gets from the environment (outside the body)
- ENDS WITH object permanence/beginning of representational thought (mental representations formed of external objects/events)

Question 7

Give age and defining features of preoperational stage of development

Answer 7

Age: 2-7yo
- Symbolic thinking - ability to pretend/imagination.
- Egocentrism - inability to imagine what another person thinks/feels
- Inability to grasp conservation (physical amount remains the same when shape/appearance altered) because of centration (tendency to focus only on one aspect of a phenomenon).

Question 8

Give age and defining features of concrete operational stage of development

Answer 8

Age: 7-11yo
- End of egocentrism
- Can grasp conservation
- Abstract thought not yet developed, but can think logically

Question 9

Give age, defining features, and end markers of formal operational stage of development

Answer 9

Age: 11yo and older
- Can think logically about abstract ideas
- Hypothetical reasoning - ability to mentally manipulate multiple variables in a number of ways.

Question 10

Lev Vygotsky

Answer 10

Culture in cognitive development
- Engine driving cognitive development is child internalization of their culture
Psychology of identity
- Staged system of identity formation

Question 11

Describe the two subtypes of intelligence and how they are affected by age

Answer 11

Fluid intelligence - solving new/novel problems, or using new creative methods. Peaks in early adulthood, declines with age.
Crystal intelligence - solving problems using acquired knowledge, more procedural methods. Peaks in middle adulthood, remains stable with age.

Question 12

List Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development

Answer 12

Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Question 13

Define mental set

Answer 13

Tendency to approach similar problems in the same way.

Question 14

Deductive reasoning vs. Inductive reasoning

Answer 14

Deductive reasoning - Top-Down, starts from a set of general rules and draws specific conclusions from the information given.
Inductive reasoning - Bottom-up, seeks to create a general theory based on specific instances/pieces of information.

Question 15

Availability heuristic

Answer 15

A heuristic used when we base the likelihood of an event on how easily examples of that event come to mind.

Question 16

Representative heuristic and related fallacy

Answer 16

Using prototypical/stereotypical/representative ideas of a category to categorize items.
Base rate fallacy - using prototypical/stereotypical factors while ignoring numerical info.

Question 17

Disconfirmation principle and related bias

Answer 17

If a potential solution fails testing, it should be discarded.
Confirmation bias- tendency to focus on info that fits a persons beliefs and rejecting info that goes against them

Question 18

Hindsight bias

Answer 18

Tendency to overestimate one’s ability to predict the outcome of a past event.

Question 19

Belief perseverance

Answer 19

Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.

Question 20

Recognition-primed decision model

Answer 20

Describes intuition - ability to act on not necessarily conscious perceptions/pattern recognition from experience

Question 21

Howard Gardner

Answer 21

Theory of multiple intelligences; proposed 8 defined types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist.

Question 22

Robert Sternberg

Answer 22

Pioneered a cognitive perspective based on how people use their intelligence instead of trying to measure intelligence.
Three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical (everyday problems)

Question 23

List the 4 components of emotional intelligence

Answer 23

• Ability to express and perceive emotions in ourselves and others
• Ability to comprehend/analyze our own emotions
• Ability to regulate our emotions
• Awareness of how emotions shape our thoughts/desires

Question 24

Formula for Intelligence Quotient

Answer 24

(Mental age / chronological age) X 100

Question 25

Alfred Binet

Answer 25

Developed Stanford-Binet IQ test

Question 26

What brain structures maintain alertness?

Answer 26

Prefrontal cortex communicating with Reticular formation in brainstem. Interruption causes coma.

Question 27

What EEG pattern is seen in each stage of waking and sleeping?

Answer 27

Awake, alert/concentrating - Beta
Awake, relaxing - Alpha
Sleep stage 1 (NREM1) - Theta
Sleep stage 2 (NREM2) - Theta with sleep spindles and K-complexes
Sleep stage 3 (NREM3, SWS) - Delta
REM - Mostly Beta

Question 28

Dyssomnias vs Parasomnias

Answer 28

Dyssomnias - difficulty with falling/staying/avoiding sleep
Parasomnias - abnormal movements/behaviors during sleep

Question 29

Hypnagogic vs Hyptopompic hallucinations

Answer 29

Both observed in narcolepsy:
Hypnagogic hallucinations - hallucinations while falling asleep
Hypnopompic hallucinations - hallucinations while waking

Question 30

Effects of alcohol on the brain

Answer 30

• Increased activity of GAPA receptors (hyperpolarization of cell membranes therefore generalized brain inhibition)
• Increase in dopamine (euphoria)

Question 31

Acohol myopia

Answer 31

Inability to recognize consequences of actions

Question 32

Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome

Answer 32

Excessive alcohol intake causing thiamine (B1) deficiency - severe memory impairment, changes in mental status, loss of motor skills.

Question 33

Effects of barbiturates and benzodiazepines (sedatives) on the brain

Answer 33

Increase in GABA activity (hyperpolarization of cell membranes therefore generalized brain inhibition)

Question 34

Stimulants increase activity of which neurotransmitters?

Answer 34

dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin

Question 35

Describe action of opiates/opioids

Answer 35

Endorphin agonists, bind to opioid receptors in CNS and PNS

Question 36

Opiates vs Opioids

Answer 36

Opiates - naturally occurring (ex. morphine, codeine)
Opioids - semisynthetic derivatives (ex. oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin)

Question 37

What receptors does THC act on? What neurotransmitters affected and how?

Answer 37

• cannabinoid, glycine, and opioid receptors.
• GABA activity inhibited, dopamine indirectly increased

Question 38

Describe purpose and structures of the mesolimbic reward pathway.

Answer 38

• Dopaminergic pathway involved in motivation/emotional response, activated by all substances that produce psychological dependence + gambling and love.
• Nucleus accubens (NAc) and Ventral tegmental area (VTA), connected by Medial forebrain bundle (MFB)

Question 39

Selective attention

Answer 39

Focusing on one part of the sensorium while filtering other stimuli to be processed in the background.

Question 40

List and define 5 basic components of language

Answer 40

Phonology - the actual sounds of a language, broken into phonemes
Morphology - the structure of words, broken into morphemes (ex. roots, prefixes, etc)
Semantics - the association of meaning with a word. Certain combinations of phonemes represent specific objects/ideas.
Syntax - How words are put together to form sentences; word order’s effect on meaning.
Pragmatics - the dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge. Encompasses prosody (rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices)

Question 41

Language development milestones and their expected ages.

Answer 41

9-12 months: Babbling
12-18 months: Adding one word per month
18-20 months: Explosion of language, combining words
2-3 years: Longer sentences (3+ words)
5+ years: Language largely mastered

Question 42

Overextension (language development)

Answer 42

Inappropriately applying a term to an object because it bears a cursory similarity to the true meaning of the term. Seen most during “language explosion” at 18-20 months.

Question 43

Nativist (biological) theory of language development

Answer 43

• Noam Chomsky
• Young children’s ability to grasp transformational grammar indicated presence of Language Acquisition Device (LAD), theoretical pathway that allows infants to process/absorb language rules innately.
• Claims critical period of language acquisition between 2yo and puberty

Question 44

Learning (behaviorist) theory of language development

Answer 44

• B.F. Skinner
• Language acquisition by operant conditioning/reinforcement by caregivers
• Doesn’t explain explosion of vocabulary at 18-20 months

Question 45

Social interactionist theory of language development

Answer 45

Language acquisition driven by child’s desire to communicate and behave socially, progression allowed as brain develops.

Question 46

Whorfian hypothesis/Linguistic relativity hypothesis

Answer 46

Suggests language itself has effect on our perception of reality, provides the original framework for understanding/processing information

Question 47

Name two major areas in speech production and language comprehension, their locations, their major functions, and the structure that connects them.

Answer 47

Broca’s area
- inferior frontal gyrus of frontal lobe, dominant hemisphere
- communicates with motor cortex to control motor function of speech production

Wernicke’s area
- Superior temporal gyrus of temporal lobe, dominant hemisphere
- Language comprehension

Connected by Arcurate fasciculus, bundle of axons.