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biology GCSE > bio topic 2 > Flashcards

bio topic 2 Flashcards

1
Q

order of what makes up what for humans

A

cells -> tissue -> organ -> organ systems

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2
Q

what is a cell

A

the smallest unit that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms

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3
Q

what is a tissue

A

Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit

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4
Q

what is an organ

A

a collection of tissues that structurally form a functional unit specialized to perform a particular function.

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5
Q

what is organ system

A

a biological system consisting of a group of organs that work together to perform one or more functions.

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6
Q

what are the 3 main nutrients that are too big to be absorbed into bloodstream

A
  • carbohydrates
  • protein
  • lipids
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7
Q

describe the digestive system processes

A

1- mouth = mechanical digestion as food is chewed and broken down into smaller pieces. in the saliva amylase (enzyme) breaks down carbohydrates into glucose
2- oesophagus = peristalsis pushes food down into stomach
3- stomach = muscles churn and break down food. contains HCL which digest food. has protease to break down protein into amino acids
4- fluid moves down into small intestines
5- chemicals released into the small intestines
6- pancreas = releases pancreatic juices into the small intestines to break down carbs and protein as well as starting the breakdown of lipids
7 = liver releases bile which speeds up digestion of lipids and neutralises the acid released from stomach
8- walls of small intestines releases enzymes to break down food and has villi to absorb broken down nutrients into blood stream by absorption/ active transport
9- moves into large intestine = water absorbed into blood stream
10- rectum releases faeces out from body

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8
Q

what is an enzyme

A

a biological catalyst which speeds up reactions

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9
Q

what is an enzyme-substrate complex

A

-enzymes are large protein molecules with active site which attaches to substrate to form complex
- the enzyme must be complimentary to the substrate
- the enzyme then breaks down the substrate into products

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10
Q

what is the lock and key theory regarding enzymes

A
  • the substrate must be complimentary to enzymes active site
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11
Q

what enzymes break down proteins so it can be absorbed into blood stream

A

protease breaks proteins down into polypeptides and amino acids

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12
Q

what enzymes break down carbohydrates so it can be absorbed into blood stream

A

carbohydrase breaks down carbohydrates into simple sugars
amylase breaks down starch into simple sugars

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13
Q

what is a lipid molecule made up of

A

one glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acids

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14
Q

what enzyme breaks down lipid molecules

A

lipase breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids

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15
Q

where is the enzyme lipase found

A
  • pancreatic fluid
  • small intestines
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16
Q

effect of raising temp in an enzyme-substrate reaction

A

as temp increases, reaction increases as particles gain kinetic energy which means more frequent successful collisions. at around 37 degrees C it reaches optimum which is the best conditions for the enzyme substrate reactions to happen. after it increases above optimum temp the enzymes denature so the active site is no longer complimentary so enzyme-substrate complexes don’t form anymore, so rate of reaction rapidly decreases

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17
Q

effect of pH on enzyme-substrate complex

A

each enzyme has an optimum ph. if the enzyme gets too acidic or too alkaline in comparison to its optimum it denature so less reactions

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18
Q

what is the qualitative food test for sugars

A

[blue -> orange/brick-red]
Benedict’s solution is a blue liquid.
1 Add a few drops of Benedict’s solution to the food solution.
2 Heat the test tube in a water bath.
3 If the solution turns orange-red, the food contains sugar.

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19
Q

what is the qualitative food test for starch (carbs)

A

[orange/brown -> blue/black]
iodine solution is an orange-yellow liquid.
1 Add a few drops of iodine solution to the food solution.
2 If the solution turns a dark blue-black colour, the food contains starch.

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20
Q

what is the qualitative food test for lipids?

A

[colourless -> milky]
1 Add a few drops of ethanol to the food solution
2 Shake the test tube and leave for one minute
3 Pour the ethanol into a test tube of water
4 If the solution turns cloudy, the food contains lipids.
OR
1 add equal parts food and water
2 put drops of Sudan III and shake
3 if red layer forms on top fats are present

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21
Q

what is the qualitative food test for proteins?

A

[blue -> lilac/purple]
1 add biuret solution into test
2 colour changes from blue to lilac

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22
Q

Required practical - effect of pH on the rate of reaction of amylaseb

A

Place single drops of iodine solution in rows on dimple tile
Use syringe to put 2cm3 of amylase and 1cm3 of buffer solution to a test tube
add 2cm3 of starch solution to test tube
Start the stopwatch whilst mixing using pipette
After 10 seconds, use a pipette to place one drop of the mixture on the first drop of iodine
should turn blue-black
Wait 10 seconds and place another drop on second drop of iodine
Repeat until iodine solution remains orange-brown
Repeat experiment at different pH values –

the less time the iodine solution takes to remain orange-brown, the quicker all the starch has been digested and so the better the enzyme works at that pH

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23
Q

the respiratory system structure

A

trachea leads to bronchi which branches off into bronchiole which leads to lots of alveoli where gas exchange happens

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24
Q

what is the role of the diaphragm in the respiratory system

A

The diaphragm is a thin sheet of muscle that separates the chest cavity from the abdomen; it is ultimately responsible for controlling ventilation in the lungs
- When the diaphragm contracts it flattens and this increases the volume of the chest cavity, which causes a decrease in air pressure inside the lungs relative to outside the body, drawing air in
- When the diaphragm relaxes it becomes domed-shaped which decreases the volume of the chest cavity, which causes an increase in air pressure inside the lungs forcing air out

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25
Q

what is role of intercostal muscles in respiratory system

A

The external and internal intercostal muscles work as antagonistic pairs
During inhalation the external set of intercostal muscles contract to pull the ribs up and out:
This also increases the volume of the chest cavity decreasing air pressure, drawing air in
During exhalation, the external set of intercostal muscles relax so the ribs drop down and in:
This decreases the volume of the chest cavity increasing air pressure, forcing air out

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26
Q

what is forced exhalation

A

When we need to increase the rate of gas exchange (e.g: when working out) the internal intercostal muscles will also work to pull the ribs down and in to decrease the volume of the chest cavity more, forcing air out more forcefully and quickly
this allows more gas exchange

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27
Q

When breathing in…

A

-external intercostal muscles contract
-ribcage moves up and out
-diaphragm contracts and flattens
-chest cavity volume increases, pressure decreases
-air is drawn in

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28
Q

When breathing out…

A

-external intercostal muscles relax
-rib cage moves down and in
-diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome-shaped
-chest cavity volume decreases, pressure increases
-air is forced out

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29
Q

ribs in respiratory system:

A

bone structure that protects lungs
aids breathing

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30
Q

intercostal muscles in respiratory system:

A

muscles between ribs control movement
causes inhalation and exhalation

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31
Q

diaphragm in respiratory system:

A

sheet of connective tissue below chest cavity
helps change volume of chest cavity for inhalation and exhalation

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32
Q

trachea in respiratory system:

A

windpipe that connects mouth and nose to lungs
lined with goblet cells (produces mucus)
ciliated epithelial cells (cilia moves mucus up to mouth)

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33
Q

bronchi in respiratory system:

A

large tubes branching off trachea (one for each lung)
also lined with ciliated epithelial cells and goblet cells

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34
Q

bronchioles in respiratory system:

A

smaller tubes connected to respective bronchi to connect to alveoli

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35
Q

alveoli in respiratory system:

A

small moist air sacs that are covered in capillaries and have a large surface area for gas exchange

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36
Q

the heart has 4 chambers

A

left atrium, left ventricle, right atrium, right ventricle

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37
Q

The right side of the heart…

A

pumps blood to the lungs for gas exchange (this is the pulmonary circuit)

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38
Q

The left side of the heart…

A

pumps o2 blood under high pressure to the body (this is systemic circulation)

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39
Q

The benefits of a double circulatory system:

A

Blood travelling through the small capillaries in the lungs loses a lot of pressure which reduces the speed at which it can flow
By returning oxygenated blood to the heart from the lungs, the pressure can be raised before sending it to the body, meaning cells can be supplied with oxygenated blood more quickly

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40
Q

process of heart

A

The right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs.
The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body

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41
Q

what direction does blood in veins move to

A

towards heart

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42
Q

what direction does blood in arteries move to

A

away from heart

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43
Q

Pathway of blood through the heart

A
  • Deoxygenated blood enters the heart by vena cava, goes into the right atrium
  • blood flows down through valves into the right ventricle
    -When the ventricles contract, blood travels up through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for gas exchange so blood becomes oxygenated
    -Oxygenated blood returns to the heart by pulmonary vein, goes to the left atrium
    -Blood flows down through valves into the left ventricle
    -ventricles contract, blood travels up through the aorta, and to the rest of the body
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44
Q

Adaptations of the heart

A

-walls of the ventricles thicker than atria for generating higher pressure for higher workload
-wall of the left ventricle is thicker than right ventricle as it has to pump blood at high pressure around the entire body but right ventricle is pumping blood at lower pressure to the lungs

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45
Q

There are two sets of valves inside the heart which function to prevent the backflow of blood in the heart:

A

The atrioventricular valves separate the atria from the ventricles
The semilunar valves are found in the two blood arteries that come out of the top of the heart

These valves open when the ventricles contract so blood goes through but shut to avoid blood flowing back into the heart (backflow)

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46
Q

what type of muscle is the heart made out of

A

cardiac muscle cells (or myocardium)
- never gets fatigued

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47
Q

what arteries supplies heart with oxygen

A

coronary arteries supply heart with oxygenated blood as heart needs a constant supply of oxygen (and glucose) for aerobic respiration for energy to allow muscle contraction

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48
Q

what artery is the only artery to carry deoxygenated blood and therefore what side is it on

A

pulmonary artery is the only artery of the body to carry deoxygenated blood so it is on right side

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49
Q

what vein is the only vein to carry oxygenated blood and therefore what side is it on

A

the pulmonary vein the only vein to carry oxygenated blood so it is on the left atrium

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50
Q

LORD

A

left oxygenated, right deoxygenated

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51
Q

heart rate is controlled by..

A

by a group of pacemaker cells located in the right atrium which coordinates contractions of the heart muscle, so it regulates the heart rate

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52
Q

pacemaker cells…

A

sends out electrical impulse to the surrounding muscle cells to contract
The pacemaker does this every time the heart needs to beat,
Found in right atrium

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53
Q

what is the medical term for irregular heartbeat

A

arrhythmia

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54
Q

what device can help correct arrhythmia

A

Artificial pacemakers are electrical devices used to correct irregularities in the heart rate
The device is implanted just under the skin, with a wire that delivers an electrical current to the heart to help it contract regularly

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55
Q

what are the 3 blood vessels

A

Arteries: transport blood away from the heart (usually at high pressure)
Veins: transport blood to the heart (usually at low pressure)
Capillaries: have thin walls which are “leaky”, allowing substances to leave the blood to reach the body’s tissues

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56
Q

where does blood flow through in a vessel

A

the lumen

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57
Q

artery adaptation

A

Arteries withstand high pressures generated by the heart, and maintain these pressures when the heart is relaxed
-The wall of the artery is relatively thick with layers of collagen, smooth muscle and elastic fibres
-The elastic fibres allow the artery wall to expand around blood surging through at high pressure when the heart contracts, these fibres then recoil when the heart relaxes
-a narrow lumen maintains high blood pressure

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58
Q

vein adaptations

A

veins carry blood at very low pressure as must be returned to the heart
-The wall of the vein is relatively thin with thinner layers of collagen, smooth muscle and elastic fibres
-The lumen of the vein is much larger than artery
-Veins contain valves that prevent the backflow of blood, helping return blood to the heart

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59
Q

capillary adaptations

A

capillary is made solely from a single layer of endothelial cells
-The wall is only one cell thick – this reduces the diffusion distance for oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood and the tissues of the body
-The cells of the wall have gaps called pores which allow blood plasma to leak out and form tissue fluid

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60
Q

rate of blood flow equation

A

volume of blood flow / time

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61
Q

role of blood…

A

to transport useful substances to every cell of the body, and to remove harmful waste substances

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62
Q

what is blood made up of

A

Blood is a tissue consisting of the fluid plasma (mostly water with dissolved substances in it)
Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are suspended in blood plasma

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63
Q

Red blood cells job

A

red blood cell’s carry oxygen from the lungs and deliver it throughout our body and red blood cells also transport waste such as carbon dioxide back to our lungs to be exhaled

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64
Q

red blood cells adaptations

A

-has distinctive biconcave disc shape as a result of not having a nucleus = gives RBCs a large surface to volume ratio to maximise the efficiency of diffusion of gases into and out of the cell
-RBC is packed with the protein haemoglobin = oxygen binds to haemoglobin

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65
Q

2 different types of white blood cells

A

-Phagocytes engulf and digest pathogens, destroying them
-Lymphocytes produce antibodies that help phagocytes by sticking them together (clumping) or disabling pathogens + lymphocytes produce a type of antibody called an antitoxin which neutralises the pathogens toxicity

66
Q

white blood cells role

A

part of the immune system, responsible for defending the body from infection by recognising and destroying pathogens

67
Q

what are platelets

A

fragments of cells (they contain cytoplasm but no nucleus) which are involved in forming a blood clot to prevent blood loss for a blood vessel when it is damaged

68
Q

why is not having lots of platelets dangerous

A

risk of issues like excessive bleeding and bruising

69
Q

what is coronary heart disease (CHD)

A

build up of fatty material (cholesterol) in the coronary arteries which deliver o2 and glucose to heart which narrows lumen so blood cant easily pass through so heart doesn’t receive enough o2

70
Q

CHD partial blockage…

A

results in severe chest pain (angina) caused by restricted blood flow

71
Q

CHD complete blockage…

A

heart cells cannot aerobically respire so person will have a heart attack

72
Q

how do stents help for people with CHD

A

-narrow tube is inserted into blocked vessel
-balloon inside stent inflated so stent widens lumen
-balloon removed so lumen is wider in artery so blood flow increases
this reduces risk of heart attach
lasts a long time

73
Q

what is a negative of a stent being put in

A

arteries can narrow again, risk of blood clot around (thrombosis)

74
Q

what are statins benefits for people with CHD

A

are drugs which reduces cholesterol in blood by blocking enzymes in liver which make cholesterol
this reduces risk of heart attacks
can also increase good cholesterol which removes bad cholesterol

75
Q

negatives of taking statins

A

taken long-term and regularly
has side-effects like muscle or joint pain

76
Q

faulty heart valves..

A

-valves may stiffen preventing them from fully opening to allow blood to pass through, which reduces volume of blood pumped
- faulty heart valves may develop leak allowing backflow of blood

77
Q

heart transplants for heart failure: pros and cons

A

pros:
-heart transplant patients live longer (three-year survival approaches 75 percent)
cons:
-rarely available as long transplant waiting list
-surgery can be risky

78
Q

artificial hearts pros and cons

A

pros:
-heart made from material that the body typically does not reject
-increases survival chance of patient
cons:
-risk of clotting
-surgery is risky

79
Q

what is a communicable disease

A

pathogenic diseases which can spread between individuals (e.g: covid-19)

80
Q

what is non-communicable disease

A

non-pathogenic disease caused by diet, genetics or stress

81
Q

HIV effects

A

reduces lymphocyte numbers so weakened immune system reducing ability to fight diseases

82
Q

HPV virus effects

A

infects cervix cells which results in cervical or liver cancer

83
Q

why doesn’t always a risk factor cause a specific disease

A

CORRELATION DOES NOT ALWAYS MEAN CAUSATION

84
Q

how does smoking harm a person

A

causes lung diseases and cancers etc.
-chemicals like tar in cigarettes damage alveoli and arteries linings

85
Q

how does obesity harm a person

A

causes type 2 diabetes
excessive sugar consumption reduces body’s sensitivity to insulin

86
Q

how does alcohol consumption harm a person

A

causes liver diseases
breakdown of alcohol in liver produces toxic substances which damage liver cells
causes impaired brain function
neurones are damaged by alcohol consumption

87
Q

how does exposure to carcinogens harm a person

A

causes cancers
exposure to ionising radiation can damage DNA in cells causing to uncontrolled cell division resulting in cancer

88
Q

how does alcohol consumption harm a foetus

A

causes poor development of foetus
carbon monoxide in smoke reduces o2 that goes to baby so lack of foetal development

89
Q

what are treatments for cancer

A

-surgery
-radiotherapy
-chemotherapy

90
Q

what causes cancer

A

uncontrollable DNA mutations which forms a tumour (mass of cells)

91
Q

what is a benign tumour

A

not cancerous
abnormal cell growth in one area
doesn’t invade elsewhere in body

92
Q

what is a malignant tumour

A

cancerous
disrupts organ function (dangerous)
invades other parts of body to form secondary tumours

93
Q

what kind of cancer can obesity cause

A

bowel, liver, kidney

94
Q

what kind of cancer can smoking cause

A

lung, mouth, throat, stomach

95
Q

what kind of cancer can UV radiation cause

A

skin

96
Q

what kind of cancer can viral infections cause

A

cervical, liver

97
Q

what are the structures of a leaf

A

[top]
waxy cuticle
upper epidermis
palisade mesophyll (contains chloroplast)
spongey mesophyll (contains air gaps)
vascular bundle (phloem + xylem)
lower epidermis (contains guard cells and stomata)
waxy cuticle
[bottom]

98
Q

what is the use of a waxy cuticle in a leaf

A

protective layer at top of leaf preventing water from evaporating out

99
Q

what is the use of the upper epidermis in a leaf

A

thin and transparent so light can enter palisade mesophyll below it

100
Q

what is the use of the palisade mesophyll in a leaf

A

lots of chloroplast = light is absorbed for photosynthesis

101
Q

what is the use of the spongey mesophyll in a leaf

A

has air spaces for increased surface area for gas diffusion

102
Q

what is the use of the lower epidermis in a leaf

A

has guard cells and stomata

103
Q

what is the use of the guard cells in a leaf

A

opens and closes stomata to allow gas exchange

104
Q

what is the use of the stomata in a leaf

A

where gas exchange and water evaporation happens

105
Q

what is the use of the xylem in a leaf

A

transports water from roots to leaf for photosynthesis
made of hollow tubes strengthened by lignin for transport of water

106
Q

what is the use of the phloem in a leaf

A

transports nutrients and amino acids from leaves to stem and roots

107
Q

leaf adaptation

A

large surface = increased rate of diffusion of gases
thin = co2 diffuses into palisade mesophyll quickly
chlorophyll = absorbs light
epidermis is thin and transparent = more light
wax cuticle = protects leaf
vascular bundles = supports stem and leaves

108
Q

pathway of water in leaf

A

root hair cell -> root cortex cell -> xylem

109
Q

what is transpiration

A

the loss of water vapour from leaves by evaporation followed by diffusion of water vapour by stomata

110
Q

how does high air movement affect transpiration

A

more water loss as there is a higher conc gradient

111
Q

how does high humidity affect transpiration

A

less water loss as less conc gradient between leaf and surrounding

112
Q

how does high light intensity affect transpiration

A

guard cells open with light so water vapour is lost by stomata

113
Q

how does high temp affect transpiration

A

more water lost as more kinetic energy means water diffuses out quickly

114
Q

transpiration: investigation

A

-cut a shoot underwater and set up potometer underwater so there isn’t any air bubbles
-dry leaves of shoot
-remove capillary tube to allow a single air bubble in
-allow plant to adapt to changed environment for 5 minutes
-measure start place of air bubble in tube
-leave for controlled time
-record air bubbles end location

115
Q

what factors and how can u investigate in the transpiration investigation

A

airflow = use fan or hairdryer
humidity = spray water in plastic bag and wrap around plant
light intensity = change distance of light source (lamp)
temp = heat room or cool room

116
Q

what is it called when water availability is high and so stomata open so water is lost

A

turgid guard cells

117
Q

what is it called when water availability is low and so stomata closes so water is trapped in

A

flaccid guard cells

118
Q

how are stomata adapted to reduce transpiration

A

stomata predominantly on underside of leaf where there is lower light intensity so less transpiration as less evaporation

119
Q

what is translocation

A

the transport of sucrose and amino acids in phloem from leaves to rest of plant

120
Q

what way does translocation flow in phloem

A

in all directions

121
Q

what are phloem cells: dead or alive?

A

living

122
Q

what are xylem cells: dead or alive?

A

dead

123
Q

what are the soluble substances produced in photosynthesis and what is this referred to as

A

sugars and amino acids
referred to as cell sap

124
Q

how do plants survive in winter, when leaves fall off

A

sucrose is stored as starch in roots as the sink

125
Q

aorta - heart

A

largest artery in the body
carries oxygenated blood away from the left ventricle to body

126
Q

vena cava - heart

A

largest vein in the body
carries deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart.

127
Q

pulmonary artery - heart

A

carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle to the lungs

128
Q

pulmonary vein - heart

A

returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
Left atrium

129
Q

Functions of the cardiovascular system

A

deliver oxygen and nutrients to the body
remove the waste products such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid
protection against disease and infection
maintain body temperature

130
Q

Blood pressure

A

heart contracts to push blood into blood vessels which creates blood pressure.

131
Q

systolic value

A

blood pressure while the heart is squeezing

132
Q

diastolic value

A

blood pressure while the heart is relaxing

133
Q

Heart rate

A

heart beat per min

134
Q

Stroke volume

A

amount of blood pumped out of the ventricles each contraction

135
Q

Cardiac output

A

the amount of blood pumped from the heart every minute

136
Q

What substances are transported in the blood?

A

Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Glucose
Urea
hormones
antibodies

137
Q

double circulatory system

A

the pulmonary circulation
the systemic circulation

138
Q

pulmonary circulation transports blood to the lungs

A

oxygen diffuses into the blood from the alveoli
the blood becomes oxygenated
carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the lungs

139
Q

systemic circulation transports

A

oxygen and nutrients to the body
carbon dioxide and other wastes away from cells

140
Q

systemic circulation is under high pressure

A

must force greater volumes of blood farther through the body

141
Q

pulmonary circulation is under lower pressure,

A

blood is delivered to the lungs only which is close to the heart
in healthy person low pressure is optimum for the diffusion of gases

142
Q

valves

A

valves close to prevent backflow of blood bc blood must flow one way only through the circulatory system

143
Q

Faulty heart valves

A
  • may not open wide enough
  • may not close properly
144
Q

Faulty heart valves can be replaced:

A
  • biological valve from a human donor or made from animal tissue from a pig or cow
  • mechanical valve made from strong, durable materials
145
Q

Mechanical vs biological valves

A

Mechanical valves last longer, can clot easier and may need long-term medication
Biological valves are more likely to wear out and need to be replaced

146
Q

where are pace maker cells

A

right atrium

147
Q

heart beat

A

pace-maker cells generate electrical signals that make the heart contract independently of the nervous system

148
Q

Artificial pacemakers

A

small, battery-operated electronic device implanted in chest that sends out regular, adjustable electrical impulses to produce normal contractions of the heart.

149
Q

arteries

A

carry blood away from the heart
oxygenated blood, except for the pulmonary artery
Carry blood under high pressure
thick muscular and elastic walls to pump blood
connective tissue provides strength
lumen is narrow

150
Q

veins

A

carry blood to the heart
carry deoxygenated blood, except for the pulmonary vein
Carry blood under low pressure
less muscular tissue than arteries
less connective tissue than arteries
wide lumen
has valves

151
Q

types of blood

A

red blood cells
white blood cells
platelets

152
Q

plasma

A

Transporting carbon dioxide, digested food molecules, urea and hormones; distributing heat

153
Q

Red blood cells

A

Transporting oxygen

154
Q

what do rbc have to carry o2

A

the protein haemoglobin

155
Q

how do platelets clot

A

has proteins on surface to stick breaks in a blood vessel and clump together
secrete proteins to make blood clot, which plugs a wound.

156
Q

Blood transfusion are screened for:

A

infectious agents such as HIV
their blood group
the presence of certain antibodies

157
Q

blood colour under giemsa stain

A

red blood cells pink
platelets pale pink
white blood cell cytoplasm pale blue
white blood cell nuclei magenta

158
Q

immunosuppressant drugs

A

prevents the person’s immune system from rejecting the donor heart

159
Q

Drug testing

A

Preclinical
-tested on tissues/cells to test efficacy and possible side effects in lab
Animal testing
-tested on animals to see side effects
Clinical
-tested on healthy volunteers and patients at low dose to see safety
-then dosage is increased to see optimum dose
-placebo test with double blind trial with drugs and inactive drugs on patients to see efficacy
Final
-peer reviewed data

160
Q

Placebo drug

A

Inactive substance that resembles drug

161
Q

Damaged villi

A

Reduces SA for absorption of food molecules
So less amino acids and glucose absorbed
So less glucose transfer of energy for aerobic respiration
And few amino acids present to build new protiens

biology GCSE (6 decks)

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