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MCAT > Biochem > Flashcards

Biochem Flashcards

1
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

oxidizing NADH and FADH2 to make proton gradient for ETC to make ATP

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2
Q

electron transport chain

A

electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through electron carriers to oxygen to make water and protons are pumped from matrix to intermembrane space

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3
Q

Ubiquinone

A

Q, oxidized form of coenzyme Q

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4
Q

Ubiquinol

A

QH2, reduced form of coenzyme Q

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5
Q

ETC complex 1

A

NADH dehydrogenase, transfer 2 electrons from NADH to ubiquinone and 4 protons pumped to intermembrane space

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6
Q

ETC complex 2

A

succinate DH, transfer 2 electrons from FADH2 to ubiquinone

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7
Q

ETC complex 3

A

coenzyme Q cytochrome C oxidoreductase, transfer 2 electrons from ubiquinol to 2 molecules of cytochrome C (Fe3+), 3 protons pumped to intermembrane space

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8
Q

ETC complex 4

A

cytochrome C oxidase, transfer 2 electrons from cytochrome C (Fe2+) to oxygen, and 2 protons pumped to intermembrane space (Oxygen is final electron acceptor)

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9
Q

Electrochemical gradient of ETC

A

outside membrane is positive (many protons) which causes protons to be pumped through ATP synthase into the membrane. pumping casues synthase to spin so ADP +P and makes ATP

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10
Q

Proton gradient

A

accumulation of protons in the intermembrane space, ATP synthase pumps them back to matrix causing spining to use ADP to make ATP

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11
Q
A
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12
Q

What inhibits ATP synthase

A

oligomycin or uncoupling agent (uncouples gradient, inhibits pumping)

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13
Q

Lipoprotein lipase

A

breaks chylomicrons down to individual fatty acids and free glycerol. In capillary bed

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14
Q

VLDL

A

in liver, glucose makes ATP, glycogen, and fatty acids. FA and cholesterol are packaged into VLDL

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15
Q

which amino acids are exclusivley ketogenic

A

lysine and leucine

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16
Q

Net glycolysis products

A

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH

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17
Q

Rate limiting enzyme of glycolysis

A

PFK-1

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18
Q

Irreversible enzymes of glycolysis

A

hexo/gluco kinase, PFK, pyruvate kinase

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19
Q

Glycolysis

A

doesnt need oxygen, in cytosol, transporters are mobilized by insulin

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20
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

pruvate to glucose, differs at 3 irreversible steps

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21
Q

Cost of glyconeogeneis

A

4 ATP, 2 GTP, 2 NADH

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22
Q

goals of PPP

A

makes ribose5p for nucleotides, or converts to f6p for entry into glycolysis and NADPH

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23
Q

rate limiting step of PPP

A

G6P DH, converts G6P to 6-phosphogluconate

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24
Q

Goals of TCA

A

2 pyruvate into 6 NADH, 2 ATP, 2 FADH plus 2NADH from prep

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25
Q

What goes into ETC

A

4 ATP (2 glyc, 2 TCA), 10NADH (2gly,2 prep, 6TCA) 2 FADH (TCA) makes 38 ATP

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26
Q

What parts of ETC do NADH use

A

1,3,4

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27
Q

What parts of ETC does FADH2 use

A

2,3,4

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28
Q

lub

A

tricuspid and mitral valve shut

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29
Q

dub

A

pulmonary and aorta shut, tricuspid and mitral open

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30
Q

RBC

A

no mitochondira, dont use oxygen

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31
Q

heart

A

uses systemic circulation, gets blood via coronary vessels

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32
Q

lungs

A

uses systemic circulation, gets blood via bronchial vessels

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33
Q

Inhalation

A

diaphragm and external intercostals contract, increase volume and decrease pressure, causes lungs to expand

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34
Q

Exhalation

A

relaxation of diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, decreases volume and increase pressure as air moves out

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35
Q

Lymphatic system

A

insterstitial fluid accumulates due to pressure, drains as lymph and filters then returns to blood. Fats from SI absorbs in lacetals, matures lympcytes, proteins, cells and fluid return to circulation

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36
Q

Glomerulus

A

afferent arteriole enters, efferent leaves. Turns blood into filtrate into bowmans capsule

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37
Q

PCT

A

reabosrbs amino acids, ions, glucose, and water

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38
Q

How does the PCT work

A

has Na/K pumps using ATP to move particles against their gradient to reabsorb and symport with glucose

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39
Q

Descending vs. ascending LOH

A

water absorbed in descending, reabsorbs ions in ascending

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40
Q

countercurrent multiplication

A

parts of LOH are opposite. Ascending makes adrenal medulla salty, so water is passivley absorbed in descending

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41
Q

DCT

A

loops back to glomerulus, reabsorbs ions/nutrients, makes juxtaglomerular apparatus which controls BP

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42
Q

Collecting duct

A

collects anything leftover in glomerulus, reabsorbs water and urine

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43
Q

efferent arterioles

A

connect to capillaries and returns nutrients to blood and body. Uses the renal vein

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44
Q

urination

A

calyx collects urine, moves to renal pelvis, then to ureter, bladder, and urethra

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45
Q

juxtaglomerular cells

A

release renin when BP is low

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46
Q

How liver controls BP

A

releases angiotensinogen, which renin activates to make angiotensin 1

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47
Q

ACE

A

converts ang 1 to angiotensin 2 at endothelial cells, cleaves off 2 amino acids, now has 8

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48
Q

angiotensin 2 effects

A

smooth muscle, kidneys, pituatary gland, adrenal gland

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49
Q

angiotensin 2 and smooth muscle effects

A

causes constriction and incresaes restriction to raise BP

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50
Q

angiotensin 2 and kidneys effects

A

increases kidneys ability to hold water, increases stroke volume

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51
Q

Angiotensin 2 and pituitary effects

A

ADH secreted when high osmolarity, or low BP/V, increases resistance, volume, BP, and water reabsorption via channels. Decreases osmolarity

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52
Q

Angiotensin 2 and adrenal gland effects

A

aldosterone secreted which increases volume by increasing sodium reabsorption and water moves with in. No change in osmolarity

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53
Q

Aldosterone system

A

angiotensin 2 signals cholesterol to make more aldosterone, high potassium signal aldosterone release

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54
Q

Fatty acid metabolism

A

fatty acid moves into SI and reforms TAG, uses liproproteins to make chylomicrons

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55
Q

Chylomicrons

A

packaged TAG, travel in lacetals and drain into veins and capillaries

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56
Q

Lipoprotein lipase

A

breaks down TAG in chylomicrons into FA to create adipose. activated by insulin ‘

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57
Q

What happens to excess glucose

A

in the liver, it makes fatty acids which are transported as VLDL

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58
Q

hormone sensitive lipase

A

breaks down TAG when insulin is low, and when epinephrine is high. Breaks adipose

59
Q

rate limiting enzyme of fatty acid synthesis

A

acetyl CoA carboxylase, activated by citrate, insulin

60
Q

citrate shuttle

A

enzymes for FA synthesis are in cytosol) move from mitochondira to cytoplasm (citrate -> oAA -> pyruvate/acetyl CoA)

61
Q

FA oxidation

A

makes 27 ATP per 16C, plus 80 ATP in krebs (10 ATP per acetyl coA 16C makes 8 acetyl CoA)

62
Q

rate limiting enzyme of FA oxidation

A

carnitine acyl transferase, attatches acyl to carnitine to move to matrix

63
Q

FA oxidation regulation

A

malonyl coA inhibits CAT-1

64
Q

glucogenic amino acids

A

amino acids used for glucose synthesis, converted to pyruvate, OAA, or TCA intermediated

65
Q

ketogenic amino acids

A

amino acids used for carbon backbone for FA synthesis, converted to acetyl coA

66
Q

goal of transamination

A

amino group is transferred for excretion, and carbo skeleton makes glutamate or use alpha KG for glycolysis

67
Q

follicular cycle

A

follicles grow, increase estrogen, decrease FSH/LH. Proliferative phase. Increase progesterone and inhibin (blocks FSH)

68
Q

End of follicular phase

A

Estrogen is really high, increase LH and some FSH (mostly blocked)- luteal surge

69
Q

Luteal phase

A

develops Cl due to increase of FSH and LH, decresae Estrogen and incresae progeterone to supress FSH/LH, egg implants, inhibin increases

70
Q

Menses

A

CL dies off and progesterone and estrogen decrease

71
Q

Pregnancy

A

egg implants, produces HCG to keep CL alive, placenta now makes estrogen to maintain lining, supresses FSH/LH for no ovulation

72
Q

Lac operon

A

default is opressed, high lactose means lactose binds repressor and leaves operator for polymerase to move to

73
Q

allolactase

A

causes conformation change so that repressor leaves

74
Q

lac z and lac y

A

lac Z works with beta gal, lac y works for lac transcription

75
Q

TLC

A

stationary silica is polar, Rf= distance traveled solute/ distance solvent

76
Q

anabolic

A

small to large

77
Q

Where is Mg used in glycolysis

A

glucose to G6P and 2 pglycerate to PEP

78
Q

what happens if there is no oxygen in glycolysis

A

fermentation

79
Q

PDH activators

A

coA, NAD+, pyruvate, AMP, Ca (exercising, need energy)

80
Q

PDH inhibitors

A

Acetyl CoA, NADH, ATP, Fatty acids

81
Q

ATP synthases

A

gradient allows flow from outer membrane intro matrix, causes spinning to make ATP at F1

82
Q

FA synthase

A

has two subunits with thiol

83
Q

what happens to palmitic acid

A

oxidized or makes TAG and VLDL

84
Q

What regulated fatty acid synthesis

A

(+) is citrate, insulin. (-) is glucagon, long FA

85
Q

What are long FA used for

A

oxidized, transfer electrons to carriers for ETC. Or break acetyl coA to TCA for more oxidation

86
Q

How many ATP from palmitic acid

A

107: 80 in TCA (10 ATP per 8 acetyl coA) and 27 from electron carriers

87
Q

Glycolysis and TCA products

A

4 ATP, 10 NADH, 2 FADH2 for ETC

88
Q

beta oxidation

A

every other carbon on fatty acid is oxidized at beta carbon

89
Q

How does malonyl coA inhibit FA oxidation

A

malonyl coA synthesizes FA, if theres lots of malonyl coA then its being synthesized, dont break it down

90
Q

Where does FA synthesis and oxidation take place

A

synthesis in cytosol, oxidation in mitochondria

91
Q

prostaglandins

A

lipids of inflammatory reactions

92
Q

lipid rafts

A

ordered, rich in steroids (cholesterol), helps localize materials

93
Q

How do allosteric modulators bind

A

reversibly, non covalent, not at active site

94
Q

How does glucagon maintain glucose levels after absorption state

A

stimulated release of phosphorylated glucose at non-reducing end

95
Q

ATP hydrolysis

A

cleaves phosphoanhydride bond between gamma and beta phosphate

96
Q

substrate level phosphorylation

A

synthesis of ATP by the transfer of a phosphate from a substrate to ADP via kinase in glycolysis and TCA

97
Q

dehydrogenase enzyme

A

transfers 2 hydrogen to electron acceptors, reduces the electron acceptor

98
Q

oxidative phosphorylation

A

makes ATP using oxygen to oxidize electron carriers (NADH) to make ATP (ETC)

99
Q

Bile

A

breaks down FA to increase SA and lipase breaks down

100
Q

CDK

A

default inactive, activated by cyclins, activates Rb

101
Q

Checkpoints of cell cycle

A

Between G1 and S, and G2 and M

102
Q

Rb

A

when phosphorylayed by CDK its inactive, cant inhibit DNA replication

103
Q

P53

A

TSG, induces expression of p21 which inhibits CDK, stops cell cycle progression to repair and causes apoptosis

104
Q

Osmotic pressure in lymphatic system

A

hydrostatic pressure goes down in later part of capillary (higher concentration, fluid is pulled in) osmotic pressure is high, in beginning of capillary, hydrostatic is high, causing a net flow OUT

105
Q

hydrostatic pressure

A

force exerted by the blood in vessels or in the heart chamber, drives fluid out of capillaries into tissues

106
Q

osmotic pressure

A

sucks, pulls water in

107
Q

agonist

A

chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at receptor. Increase effects

108
Q

antagonist

A

blocks or imepedes neurotransmitter at active site

109
Q

Keto vs. enol

A

keto is aldehyde or keton, enol is alcohol with Carbon to Carbon double bond - keto is more stable, enol is also cyclic sugar

110
Q

kinetic product

A

fastest, low temp

111
Q

thermodynamic product

A

most stable, slower, high temp

112
Q

strecker synthesis

A

ammonia adds to aldehyde forming an imine, cyanide attacks then hydrolyze(not specific), forms racemic alpha amino acid

113
Q

gabriel synthesis

A

use diethyl bromomalonate to modify nitrogen of pthalamide salt. add alkyl, hydrolyze, decarboxylate (non specific) with heat to racemic amino acid

114
Q

lower pKa

A

Stronger acid

115
Q

How many FADH, NADH from acetyl coA

A

3 NADH, 1 FADH per acetyl coA

116
Q

lower Km

A

faster converstion to products at non saturating concentrations of substrate

117
Q

trigylcerols

A

can be ester hydrolyzed to smaller product

118
Q

ester hydrolysis with base

A

nucleophillic addition of OH to an Ester, then OR leaves and carboxylic acid forms, then OR takes H forming ROH and carbonxylate anion

119
Q

Carboxylate anion

A

carboxylic acid with depronated oxygen at hydroxyl

120
Q

saponification

A

uses NaOH soap for base promoted ester hydrolysis of fats. OR group is long fatty acid tail

121
Q

Fischer projection

A

Horizontal is wedged, vertical is dashed. D sugar have last chiral OH on the right

122
Q

D vs L glucose

A

enantiomers- differ at ALL chiral Carbon. L must have last OH on left.

123
Q

Fischer to Cyclic sugars

A

Axial is right- draw downwards, equatorial is left- drawn upwards

124
Q

pyranose vs. furanose

A

pyranose is 6 rings, furanose is 5 rings

125
Q

alpha vs. beta glycosidic bond

A

alpha means anomeric is bonded axial and down. Beta is bonded equatorial and up

126
Q

reducing sugar

A

OH on anomeric carbon

127
Q

glucose stereoisomers

A

galactose, mannose

128
Q

hemi vs. full acetal/ketal

A

hemi has one OH and one OR, full has two OR

129
Q

beta glycosidic link

A

Cis with respect to anomeric carbon is beta.

130
Q

staggered vs. eclipsed

A

Anti staggered- MOST STABLE (largest are 180 apart), eclipsed- largest dont overlap, but has ovelap. total eclipsed- least stable, largest overlap

131
Q

Gauche conformation

A

60 degrees apart, has higher energy than anti staggered. large groups are not opposite but do not overlap- has steric hinderance

132
Q

Total eclipsed conformation

A

has torsion and steric hinderance. Least stable

133
Q

Ka

A

extent to which acid dissociates, stronger has higher Ka

134
Q

ICE table

A

use to find concentrations of acid/base dissociation. I= initial, C= Change (use X), E= equilibrium, assume 1-x for change and loss is negligible

135
Q

disaccharide reaction

A

dehydration reaction, forms covalent glycosidic bond

136
Q

Where is glyclosidic bond on DNA

A

between sugar and base

137
Q

Purine vs. pyrimidine

A

Purines are two rings, AG. Pyrimidine are one ring: CT/U

138
Q

Adenine vs. Guanine

A

two rings, guanine has carbonyl (C=O), adenine has no carbonyl, has NH2 and an extra double bond (3 in ring)

139
Q

Which bases pair with triple bond in DNA

A

guanine and cytosine (Guanine donates 2 pairs, and accepts 1 pair from cytosine)

140
Q

Cytosine vs. thymine

A

thymine has two carbonyl (C=O), cytosine has one C=O and a NH2 with 2 double bonds in ring

141
Q

Thymine vs. uracil

A

Thymine has methyl group on double bond

142
Q

How does lower pH affect heme affinity

A

Lower pH means lower Heme affinity- reaction will shift left to more CO2, and cause release of oxygen

143
Q

when does hemoglobin curve shift right

A

reduced affinity, higher CO2, low pH, higher temp. (more CO2 reacts to form bicarbonate and H+)

MCAT (7 decks)

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