Causes and cures

Question 1

why did the renaissance start

cultural movement in late 1900

Answer 1

wealthy bussiness men paid scholars and artists to investigate the writings of ancient greek and romans
Made them critical as they searched for the best versions of old texts
educated people wanted to find out more for themselves and not just accept what church said

Question 2

how did renaissance spread

Answer 2

printing press in 1451 - new ideas spread quickly
art- human body in realistic terms
new inventions- such as gun powder caused new types of wounds

Question 3

what did doctors believe in before Vesalius

Answer 3

doctors had believed Galen had given correct description of anatomy and dissections had been carried out prove he was right
church supported him and few doctors wanted to oppose him

Question 4

hippocrates

Answer 4

ancient greek theory of illness which involved the equal balance of
bood(bloodletting or eating and drinking red wine/ meat) phlegm- breath in steam or eat fresh veg
black bile- given laxatives or eat veg
yellow bile- made to vomit or change diet

Question 5

galen

Answer 5

ideas based on Hippocrates observation and the four humours
imbalance treated by use of opposites
eg fever- eating cold food n keep cool
knowledge not correct as based on animal dissection
wrote many books = bases many medieval doctors

Question 6

treating sick in medieval

Answer 6

barber surgeons- blood letting
wise men/ women- gave first aid and herbal remedies supernatural
trained doctors in large towns- used hippocratic and galenic methods= controlled by christian church

Question 7

medieval treatments

Answer 7

natural- christian church approved of Ancient Greek and romans and Galen - believed in one god
so doctors used - clinical observation= checking urine and pulse
four humours

supernatural- many diseases Hippocrates colder cure supernatural came in - position of stars and recommended prayer

Question 8

how did Christianity affect medieval medicine

Answer 8

church believed in looking after sick- Jesus healed the sick
church approved of Ancient Greek and romans- taught in universities
church believed god sent illness as a punishment so curing illness going against gods will
prayers important than treatment
church believed in - miraculous healing = sick encouraged to visit shrines and pray to saint to cure them
hospitals funded by the church
church arrested 13th century English monk who suggested doctors do original research and not trust old books
hospitals concentrated on caring for the sick not curing and more priests than doctors

Question 9

what was the Black Death

1348-1350

Answer 9

combination bubonic and pneumonic plague
bubonic- spread by fleas found on persons groin or neck or armpits = lumps oozed n when opened = fever n vomit

pneumonic - infected lungs=fever n cough= spread by victim blood/cough

Question 10

what did people think caused the Black Death

Answer 10

position of stars and plants
bad air
wells poisoned by jews=led to many attacks against jewish communities
punishment from god - god punish for sins and only god anger produce so many deaths

Question 11

real causes of Black Death

Answer 11

bacteria yersina pestis- stomach of fleas that lived on blood of rats n when rats died fleas on rats blood find new host = humans

food shortages= poor were malnourished and vulnerable to infection

Question 12

why did the disease spread so quickly

Answer 12

Street cleaning poor
Animals dug up quickly- for victims bodies
Dirty streets encouraged rats to breed
Quarantine not effective on infected villages
Unhygienic habits - throwing litter, disposal bodies n no protective clothing
Laws about cleanliness hard to enforce
Ignorance of germs and causes of disease widespread

Question 13

how did people try and deal with the Black Death

Answer 13

authorities had no idea what caused the plague - some laws but little enforcement
no medical knowledge existed so people:

Prayer
Unusual remedies such as drinking mercury or shaving a chicken and strapping it to the buboes
Moving away from towns n villages if knew plague coming
Avoiding contact with people who might’ve been infected = quarantine infected

PUMA

Question 14

impact of Black Death

Answer 14

social- villages wiped out
in England1/3 of the population died and older age groups most affected

political- demands for higher wages = peasants revolt 1381 harder for peasants to pay tax to king- weakening of feudal system
Statue of labourers- 1381- stop peasants moving around countryside looking for work

Religious- damage to Catholic Church - experienced priests died other had to run away
survivors believed god had specially protected them BUT opinions of church changed churchmen critiqued for cowardice running away

Economic- created food shortages so the price of foofd increased creating more difficulties for the poor = inflammation
landowners = sheep farming as needed few workers which increased food shortages
farm workers demanded higher wages and were less willing to be tied to land and work for feudal landlord = peasants move village to village work for desperate landlords

Question 15

Vesalius discovery

Answer 15

found some of lanes discoveries were wrong as based on animal not human dissection- own dissections
provided proof of galenas mistakes=breastbone in human has 3 parts not 7 like an ape
wrote very illustrated and accurate book based on dissections and observations of human body = explained how different system in the body works such as Skelton , nerves n digestion etc- FABRIC HUMAN BODY

Question 16

impact / significance of Vesalius discovery

Answer 16

criticised for challenging Galen and had to leave his job in Padua and later became doctor for emperor

1545- Thomas geminus- copied all of Vesalius illustrations and put them in manual for barber surgeons = compendiosa- 3 editions 1545-59- inspired English surgeons

through investigation and publication shared new knowledge to the world using printing press

overturned centuries of belief that galens study of the anatomy was correct

transformed anatomical knowledge

basis for treatments in the future - showed other how to do proper dissections and famous anatomists filled his approach

Question 17

before Harvey

Galen said new blood was constantly made in the liver and buried as a fuel in the body

Answer 17

16th century - Columbo discovered that blood moved along the veins and arteries and
Fabricus- proved that valves and in veins
Harvey read what these anatomists had discovered and built on their work - his own theories contradicted Galen

Question 18

Harveys discovery

Answer 18

built up his own knowledge of the heart through dissections of human and animal hearts= pumped blood wrong way proving only goes one way
calculated mathematically how much blood would have to be produced if a fuel
understood how muscles worked- cold blooded animals
BLOOD CIRCULATED AROUND THE BODY

Question 19

what didn’t Harvey know

Answer 19

Harvey waited 12 years to publish - de motu corgis 1628 about the circulation of blood because:
didn’t know why blood circulated
why different colours in veins and arteries
how blood from arteries- veins
scared of criticism get for challenging Galen

Question 20

impact of Harvey

Answer 20

critics said he was mad and ignored his ideas
some doctors rejected this theory- contradict Galen and didn’t believe his calculations
HOWEVER
was accepted by many doctors
four years after Harvey died- microscope made to see veins and arteries connected
transfusions not happen till 1901 - blood groups
Todays understanding of the blood and it’s circulations is significant as it allows us to quickly test and diagnose illness, carry out advanced surgery
took 50 years before uni of Paris taught to medical students

Question 21

what us the great plague and when

Answer 21

1655 returned in an epidemic of black death and killed about 100,000 in London (quarter of population)

Question 22

what did ppl think caused the great plague and what was real cause

Answer 22

punishment from god
movement if planets and miasma
real cause- fleas that lived on rats blood which attracted to rubbish = poorer part of city

Question 23

remedies and treatments for great plague

Answer 23

bleeding with leeches
smoking- keep away the poisons air
sniffed a sponge filled with vinegar
using animals such as frogs and pigeons - draw out poison
moving to countryside- avoid catching plague just like King Charles second and the court did
odd treatments- when close to death cut up a puppy alive and apply it to warm sores

Question 24

what had people learned since the Black Death during the great plague

Answer 24

people recognised the likely connection between dirt and disease = most deaths in the poorest areas

More organised approach- mayors and councillors issued orders to try n halt the spread of disease

‘Women searchers’- identified plague victims,, examined the sick and noted plague symptoms

More effective quarantine of victims guarded by watchmen

bodies were removed at night and buried in mass plague pits

fires were lit to try and remove the miasma
orders issued for streets to swept and animals not allowed in streets

gathering of crowds for games- banned

movement between plagued towns stopped

Question 25

what was small pox and it’s symptoms

Answer 25

biggest killer diseases in 18th century- highly infected virus spread by coughing , sneezing ,touching an infected person
killed 30 percent of those who caught it

symptoms-
fever, headache and a rash followed by puss filled blisters covering entire body

Question 26

prevention of small pox before Jenner

Answer 26

inoculation - healthy person a mild dose of the disease- dried scabs were scratched into their skin or blown up their nose= build up resistance to the disease

Question 27

who made inoculation popular in 1721

Answer 27

lady Mary Wortley montagu had her children inoculated

and it became common from the 1740’s and many doctors became rich from the procedure

Question 28

limitations of inoculation

Answer 28

religious objections- believed preventing sickness interfered with gods will
lack of understanding/ disbelief that it would work
inoculated people could pass onto others
poor people couldn’t afford

Question 29

what was Jenners discovery and when

Answer 29

Jenner heard milkmaid caught cowpox- milder version of smallpox and so tested this theory
1796- give small pox to an 8 year old
if was to work child would not react to the follow up small pox inoculation
HOWVER if it failed then the boy would develop smallpox
SO …. 6 weeks later give boy inoculation of small Poland no disease followed

= Jenner called cow pox inoculation - VACCINATION
Jenner repeated the experiment over several weeks to 16 different patients and none of them reacted to smallpox

Question 30

opposition to Jenners vaccination

6

Answer 30

not explain how vaccination worked

many doctors were profiting from small pox

William Woodville and George Pearson carried out tests using cowpox but equipment was contaminated and one of their patients died so concluded Jenner = wrong

not a fashionable city doctor-people were prejudiced against him

government raised taxes pay for small pox vaccinations in 1830’s 40,000 died - made vaccinations compulsory in 1853 but people said they should leave medicine alone

some doctors felt giving someone cowpox more of a risk than inoculating them

many groups who were ANTI-VACCINATION
eg Leicestershire demonstrations against vaccination led to members of anti vac being elected to board of health

Question 31

before pare

Answer 31

guns fairly new inventions so surgeons were not used to treating such wounds
gunshot wounds thought to be poisonous and were burned out using boiling oil, cream of rose oil, egg white and turpentine = AGONISING for the patient
Pare couldn’t bear and wanted to find new methods
wounds CAUTERISED- to stop bleeding using red hot iron
Pare did many amputations

Question 32

what did pare discover

Answer 32

1537- ran out of burning oil so he just used cream = patients slept easily and wounds healed quickly
1545- pare wrote a book about treating wounds in new and Better ways
Pare used galens method of typing blood vessels with ligatures in amputations ( cause infection and took some time to implement = speed crucial on battlefield)
Invented CROWS BEAK CLAMP- to halt bleeding
Designed false limbs for wounded soldiers

Question 33

impact of Pare

Answer 33

pare translated work of Vesalius and used his work in his books on surgery (1561- and 1575) = greatly increased surgeons understanding of human anatomy = Pare books soon circulated

Pare ‘works on surgery’- widely read by English surgeons and an English hand written version appeared in the the library of barber surgeons in LDN 1591

16 century queen Elizabeth - 1 st surgeons William claws 1544-1604 made pares work well known

clowes- 1588 like pare said gunshot wounds were not poisonous and wrote about stopping bleeding from wounds in his book ‘proved practice’

Question 34

medical treatment in the 17th and 18th century

Answer 34

barber surgeons -poorly trained people perform small operation such bloodletting which cut into the veins and give hair cuts

apothecaries- they had little or no medical training but sold medicines and potions

wise women- treatments relied on superstition however they often had extensive knowledge of plants and herbs

quacks- travelling salesmen who sold all sorts of medicines and ‘cure-alls’

trained doctors- those who treated Charles the 2nd using a mixture of new and traditional knowledge

Question 35

limited medical understanding in the 17th and 18th century

Answer 35

Charles the second had chronic kidney problem
on 2nd feb 1685 he was diagnosed with ‘disturbance in the brain’ - given 58 drugs , purged , bled and blistered = none helped
Charles regularly had bloodletting performed
It was said he was killed by his mercury tablets given to him to cure his syphilis

Question 36

new voyages of treatment in the 17th and 18th cent

Answer 36

herbal remedies- back of cinchona tree from South Africa which contained quinine helped treat malaria

opium-from turkey used as an anaesthetic

discovery of John wood hall- in 1617 lemons and limes treat scurvy

beliefs such as royal touch- kings touch cure illness and 3000 people a year came

Question 37

what did the printing press do in 17th and 18th cent

Answer 37

enabled ordinary people to collect books on herbal remedies and many that worked were passed down from generation to generation (honey killed bacteria and the willow tree contained aspirin which dulled pain)

Question 38

traditional and new treatments in the 17th and 18th century

Answer 38

traditional-
Nicholas culpepper- wrote complete herbal in 1653 = used plants and astrology HIGHLY CRITICAL OF BLOODLETTING AND PURGING

NEW - Thomas Sydenham- 1624-89
English doctor who stressed careful observations of symptoms and critical of quack medicine
Noted that the symptoms of scarlet fever and used iron for treating anaemia
Dissmissed idea of dissections and ignored Harvey because not help treating patients
still used bleeding methods for treatment
His book ‘medical observations’ in 1676 became standard textbook

Question 39

what did Pasteur and koch say about the germ theory

RIVALRY MASSIVELY SPEEDED UP BECAUSE OF THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR 1870-71

pasteur and koch trying to race each other because of national rivalry
pasteur - French
koch - German

early 19th century - 1800’s

Answer 39

pasteur- said that germs caused disease and proved that milk went off because of bacteria in the air and says the same bacteria causes disease

koch- decade after
he isolated anthrax bacteria and injected it into healthy mice who then became ill proving that bacteria was the cause = Pasteur germ theory into practice

Question 40

significance of pasteur and koch discoveries

Answer 40

koch went on to find ways of staining photographing and therefore identifying different bacteria- disproving that all bacteria is the same = 21 disease causing germs by 1900

Pasteur- study cholera in chickens= found that when infected them with old culture of cholera = fell in not die = resistant to fresh cholera injections
Pasteur was first person to ever create vaccines in a lab and could now be produced on a mass scale

1870’s their ideas were translated in britian = accept the germ theory

tyndall- continued to lecture koch discoveries and British doctors
Roberts developed- medical version of the germ theory
1879- surgeons cheyne- translated koch work and explained how the microbes present in the air did not always produce disease

microbe hunters- new generation followed the work of Pasteur and koch and doctors and scientists studied all manner of disease - rabies, tuberculosis n plague

by end of 19th century - scientists began to truly understand what caused disease and how stop unnecessary death

Question 41

the significance at the time of the germ theory-1800’s

Answer 41

using koch methods the causes of disease were identified very quickly in 1882 tuberculosis- koch and his team and 1883 cholera

1882- pasteur turned his attention to rabies (disease passed to humans by bite of a infected dog)- not common disease in humans but caused certain death + patient suffered = developed rabies vaccine

germ theory proved the role of microbes in infection and disease , doctors dealing with disease deep inside the body could use intense heat or powerful antiseptics = no body come up with a way to kill/alter microbes in the body without damaging healthy tissue

Pasteur used his own germ theory- to research cholera. in 1879 by accident Charles Chamberland (one of Pasteur assistances) used an weakened sample of the disease microbes
when chickens injected they survived and they survived when injected with fresh strong germs = weakened microbes built up resistance

Question 42

significance- later 1900’s

6

Answer 42

in the 1900's causes and cures were discovered 
1905- cholera vaccine developed 
1906-vitamins identified 
1921- insulin discovered (cure diabetes)
1928-Fleming discovered penicillin
1942-pencillin mass produced in the USA 
1954- polio vaccine developed 
1965-measles vaccine developed 

both encouraged new generation of scientists to study deadly diseases and find new ways of preventing them= ‘microbe hunters’= many of these discoveries
Joseph Lister- introduced French serum for diphtheria to Britain = widely used after 1895 - within 10 years morality rate dropped to less than half

Paul Ehrlich- Kochs test used his method of dying bacteria so they would show up to find ways of killing deadly germs leaving the rest of the body safe.
1909- developed first chemical cure for a disease found that chemical - salvarasan 606 cured syphilis= magic bullet as targeted harmful germ specifically and not harm rest of body

fall in annual death rate from tuberculosis- 1934-1995

acceptance of germ theory- led scientists to try to study microbes. Led scientists to the idea of finding drugs could be taken- destroy harmful bacteria of all kinds
ultimately in 1928- Fleming discovered penicillin = first antibiotic drug used to destroy harmful bacteria without affecting rest of the body

other magic bullets found by scientists over the next 20 years- prontosil= worked against germs that caused blood poisoning - active ingredient ‘sulphonamide’.
More magic bullets or ‘sulpha drugs’ soon developed to cure or control meningitis and scarlet fever

TODAY-HPV ANTI CANCER VACCINE

Question 43

how was penicillin discovered

Answer 43

during ww1 Fleming had now seen soldiers were suffering from ill effects of the germ staphylococcus

1928- Fleming went on holiday and test several plates of staphylococcus germs in his lab in dishes and when he came home he noticed mould on one
noticed germs had been killed

= found it to be the penicillin mould - appeared a spore from this mould had grown in a room below and floated up stairs

Question 44

what are magic bullets

Answer 44

Robert koch assistant Paul ehrlich found chemicals that would not only stain a specific type of bacteria but kill it too
Chemical cure for syphillus- 1909 = magic bullets

Question 45

What did Fleming conclude

Answer 45

Today we know penicillin as an anti biotic but Fleming didn’t know this and concluded it was a natural antiseptic
Fleming didn’t inject penicillin into an infected animals which would would’ve shown that it can kills infections

However so
As a result few people regarded his work and and gradually even Fleming lost interest

Question 46

What development of penicillin

Answer 46

1930 researchers at oxidised university read about penicillins capacnility to kill germs
Florey and chain- successfully tested penicillin on 8 mice over a period of months and turned their uni departments into a penicillin producing factory
They produced enough to use on a patient with bad infection
Patient injected infection began to clear up however the patient died when it ran out = next step how to mass produce

Question 47

How was penicillin mass produced

Answer 47

World war 2 major factor - transforming pencillin as steady supply of it was vital treating infected soldiers

June 1941- flores met with us government who realised the benefits of pencillin and agreed to pay several huge companies to make gallons of it

1943- enough been made to treat a 100 soldiers but by 1944 there was enough for 40,000
1945 end of war - 250,000 soldiers being treated as Britain and USA work together

Question 48

Impact of pencillin

Now

Answer 48

Led to huge government sponsored programmes to develop it and produce it
PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY- had both the finance and tech to research it

Today farm industry is one of the biggest in the world and estimated £200 billon to £300 billion employing nearly 80,000 in uk alone

Towards the end of the 19th century larger companies we know today such as bechamel had been formed

Question 49

Impact of pencillin at the time

Answer 49

15 percent of soldiers wounded would’ve died without ur

Thousands of injured soldiers returned to service much more quickly than they would’ve without pencillin treatment
= success of it led to gov out more public money into scientific research in units to find new cures and diseases

After war pencillin became available for doctors classes as an anti biotic and saved lives of millions

Risk of infection during surgery was reduced

Tetracycline 1953 - cleared up skin infections

Led to other antibiotics being produced - 1944 steptomyain proved excellent treatment for tuberculosis

Question 50

Bad impacts of pencillin

Answer 50

Effectiveness can lead to overuse

Not all drugs work and even proven antibiotics can Fail

Antibiotic resistant bacteria - MRSA - 1961

Doctors still can’t cure some diseases such as viruses like aids and cold

Question 51

What factors were involved in the development of pencillin

Answer 51

War - by end of war USA and Britain working together to make it mass Produced and by 1945 - 200,000 soldiers treated
Huge numbers of soldiers created huge demand = mass produced

Individuals- saved 15% soldiers
Forming wrote an article about his discovery in 1928 and Florey chain applied for research funds £25
Florey and chain conducted experiment on Albert Alexander
Fleming left a dish of staphyloccus germs killed
Florey and chain tests

Government
Give money for research
Invested in several companies that made pencillin = 80 million

Science -
Pencillin started clearing up Albert infection
Fleming left his dish and spite of pencillin come from room below
Setting up of chemical plants = mass produced
Florey and chain 8 nice with deadly germs

Question 52

Modern treatment since 1945

Answer 52

DNA - tech microscopes made ur possible to see genes and chromosomes within body cells

Science
2003 - human genome declared = understanding how genes help determine who a person is
Understanding of DNA- led to identifying genetic screening and engineering us now possible to identify genes = cause heriditsry conditions
Genes- can manipulated correct problems in patients body
Artificially produce antibodies
Stem cells and genetic engineering will allow doctors to cure or prevent most diseases in 21st century
1999 human genome project- world largest biological research - decode all genes in body and their roles

Individuals- Francis crick and James Watson - used their knowledge about genetics and applied their skills in biochemistry = structure of DNA
Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin - expert in X-ray photography

Communication - crick and Watson published their finding of structure of DNA and the fact genes could pass info from one to another

Question 53

Alternative treatments

Answer 53

Aromatherapy- uses essential oils from fruits and flowers these and inhaled and massages into the skin
= stimulate brain which promote healing and influence emotions and mental

Acupuncture- fine needles are placed at key points around the body
The places chosen linked to particular needs or illnesses = needles release blocked energy and balance it

Homeopathy- patient take a medicine which causes similar symptoms to the illness they are suffering from = tiny doses of medicine will cure patient = defences in body

Hypnotherapy- hypnotises patient - when relaxed relive all stress and physically = based on positive thinking