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MCAT Psych and Soc > Ch. 4: SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS > Flashcards

Ch. 4: SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES AND SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Flashcards

1
Q

define society

A

a group of people who share a culture and live/interact with each other within a definable area

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2
Q

Sociology

A

The study of how individuals interact with, shape, and are shaped by the society they live in

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3
Q

What are the four major sociological theories that explain society?

What are the other 2 ?

A
  1. Functionalism (macro)
  2. Conflict theory (macro)
  3. Symbolic interactionism (micro)
  4. Social constructionism (macro/micro)
  5. Feminist theory
  6. Rational choice/ social exchange theories
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4
Q

Out of the four major sociological theories, which ones are…

Macro?

Micro?

Both?

A

Macro: Functionalism and conflict theory

Micro: Symbolic interactionism

Both Social constructionism

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5
Q

Define functionalism

A

A theory that conceptualizes society as a living organism with many different parts and organs, each of which has a distinct purpose

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6
Q

Functionalism can trace its genesis to who??

A

The philosopher Herbert Spencer

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7
Q

What did Herbert Spencer say about functionalism?

A
  • compared society to a functioning and regulating human body
  • Various structures and institutions are to a society as the various organs and systems are to a human body
  • societies can evolve just like organisms
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8
Q

What are some of the main points of functionalism?

A
  • ## Focus on functions of different social structures and their contribution to society at large
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9
Q

Who is considered the founder of sociology? Why?

A

Emile Durkheim

Established sociology as an academic field of study separate and distinct from psychology and political philosophy

Groundbreaking scientific work

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10
Q

What did Emile Durkheim say about functionalism?

A
  • society’s capacity to maintain social order and stability is essential to functional success
  • modern societies more complex than primitive societies
  • interdependent parts work together to keep society ordered, balanced, stable specifically when facing imbalance or crisis to return to state of dynamic equilibrium
  • healthy societies maintain dynamic equilibrium, unhealthy ones cannot
  • society should always be viewed holistically: a collection of social facts (morals, values, religions, customs, rules, etc)
  • “collective conscience” and social “solidarity”
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11
Q

Manifest functions in functionalism

A

The official, intended and obvious consequences of a social structure

eg. manifest functions of a police department include enforcing laws against violent crime and property crime

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12
Q

Latent functions in functionalism

A

The unintended or less recognizable consequences of a social structure

eg. Latent functions of a police department include raising government revenue by issuing traffic tickets or promoting social inequality through selective law enforcement

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13
Q

Social dysfunction

A

A process that has undesirable consequences and may actually reduce the stability of society

eg. a dysfunctional police department could routinely commit police brutality

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14
Q

When was functionalism the prevailing theory in sociology?

A

1950s

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15
Q

What is a macro level theory?

A

One that focuses primarily on large scale social structures and their effects on individuals

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16
Q

What was a major criticism of fundamentalism ?

A

sociologists began to argue that functionalism’s focus on the structures of healthy society working together to maintain societal order, balance, and stability could not accurately account for the many rapid sociological advances taking place in the 1960s and 1970s

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17
Q

Define conflict theory

A

A theory that views society as being in competition for limited resources

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18
Q

2 major points of conflict theory

A
  1. All past and current societies have had unequally distributed resources, therefore individual members of these societies must compete for social, political, and material resources
  2. social structures and institutions will reflect this competition in their degree of inherent inequality: Those with the most resources, power, and influence use their advantages to amass more resources power and influence by suppressing the advancement of others
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19
Q

Which sociological theory were Karl Marx and Max weber closely associated with?

A

Conflict theory

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20
Q

What did Karl Marx say about conflict theory?

A
  • every society is divided into two major classes depending on ownership of the means of production
  • In capitalism, the ruling class owns the means of production while the working class provides labour. Working class is oppressed and exploited by the ruling class that pays working class a fraction of the value of their labour
  • Differences between the two classes result in inherent conflict of interests between the two groups
  • Those who already have want to maintain their position at the top. Have nots want to overthrow the haves to create an egalitarian society

-

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21
Q

Capitalism

A

The economic system that encourages competition and private ownership

Goods and services are produced for a profit

Driving force is the pursuit of personal profit

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22
Q

Hegemony

A

A coerced acceptance of the values, expectations, and conditions as determined by the capitalist class

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23
Q

Class consciousness (marx)

A

Marx defines as: exploited workers’ awareness of the reasons for their oppression

Marx said this would inevitably lead to workers revolting against the less numerous capitalists, overthrow their oppressors, and replace capitalism with an extreme form of socialism (marx called communism)

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24
Q

Socialism

A

An economic system where resources and production are collectively owned

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25
Q

What criticisms did Max Weber have of Marx’s tenets of conflict theory? What did he agree with?

A

Agree: inequalities in a capitalist system will lead to conflict

Disagreed:
- collapse of capitalism is not inevitable
- Marx’s focus on economic inequality is too narrow and extreme
- Marx does not pay enough attention to the power of values and beliefs to influence, transform, stabilize societies
- several factors moderate peoples’ reaction to inequality: agreement with authority figures, high rates of social mobility, low rates of class difference

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26
Q

Protestant/ Puritan work ethic

A

Theorized by Max Weber about conflict theory

a widely held religious belief that lauded the morality of hard work for the sake of godliness

critical factor in the success of the capitalist system in replacing the feudist system that preceded it in western europe

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27
Q

Rationalization of society

A

Defined by max weber as our increasing concern with efficiency (achieving max result with min effort)

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28
Q

Which three men are generally considered the founders of sociology?

A

Karl Marx
Emil Durkheim
Max Weber

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29
Q

What are the major criticisms of Conflict Theory

A
  • focuses too much on competition
  • does not recognize the role of stability within society
  • and that Conflict theorists…
    1. focus too nearsightedly on economic factors
    2. view society only from the perspective of those who lack power
    3. ignore the cooperative ways in which people and groups can reach pragmatic agreements for the good of society as a whole
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30
Q

Symbolic interactionism

A

A micro level theory in sociology which examines the relationship between individuals and society by focusing on communication, the exchange of information through language and symbols

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31
Q

The works of which sociologist are considered most important in the initial development of the paradigm?

A

George Herbert Mead

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32
Q

Main points of symbolic interactionism

A
  • individuals can make sense of the world around them by ascribing meaning to the symbols and language of their shared culture
  • Derived Meanings depend on both individual interpretations and social context
  • Society is constructed through human interpretation. People behaved based on what they believe to be true. People must continually interpret their own behaviours as well as those of others around them and these interpretations form a social bond
  • the principal of meaning is the central aspect of human behaviour
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33
Q

What 3 reasons are given for the principal of meaning to be the central aspect of human behaviour in symbolic interactionism?

A

1) Humans ascribe meaning to things and act toward those things based on their ascribed meaning

2) Language allows humans to generate meaning through social interaction with each other and society

3) Humans modify meanings through an interpretive thought process that observes and considers the reactions of others as well as the social context of these interactions

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34
Q

Mean and other interactionists have determined that the self is developed through three important activities….

A
  1. Language:
    - most prominent, what we say, hear, body language, interpretation of meaning
  2. Games:
    - stricter rules, greater stakes: ex. board games
  3. Play:
    - spontaneity, freedom, minimal social rules, limited stakes: going out for coffee)
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35
Q

What is Mead’s “i” and “me”? explain the distinction

A

“I”: represents individualistic self
- seeks to establish its own unique identity through social interactions in the face of social pressures and expectations
- the active agent part of the self
- acts on other people and things, has its own autonomy and will

“me”: represents the social self
- when others are acting and interpreting our behaviour and we are the object of their actions and interpretations

Both the I and Me are in constant dialogue. “Thinking” is the internal dialogue between the individualistic and social self

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36
Q

What is the Thomas Theorem?

A

The theory that interpretation of a situation affects the response to that situation

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37
Q

What is the Dramaturgical approach?

A

Developed by Erving Goffman

A paradigm that views people as theatrical performers and everyday life is a stage.

  • actors project an on screen image just as people in society choose what kind of image they will communicate to those they interact with
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38
Q

Criticisms of symbolic interactionism

A

The theory neglects the macro level of social interpretation and may miss the larger issues of society by focusing too closely on individual interactions

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39
Q

Social constructionism

A

A sociology theory that argues that reality is constructed, not inherent

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40
Q

What aspects to social constructionism and symbolic interactionism share? How do they differ?

A

Same:
- society is subject to cultural “meaning making” and collective definition building
- primary way societies evolve is through changes in collective meaning making
- challenge the scientific viewpoint that there is one objective reality shared by all humans

Differ:
- interactionists focus almost exclusively on one-on-one and small group interactions while
- social constructionists examine the constructs of society from both macro and micro sociological perspectives

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41
Q

Typification

A

The process of relying on individual general knowledge as a way of constructing ideas about people and the social world

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42
Q

Feminist Theory

A

Social theory concerned with the social experiences of both men and women and the differences between these experiences

ex. Manhood vs woman hood
Masculine vs feminine

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43
Q

Is feminist theory macro or micro?

A

Focuses both on macro level questions (the social structures that contribute to gender differences) and micro level questions (the effects of gender differences on individual interactions

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44
Q

define feminism

A

a collection of social movements with the purpose of establishing men and women as equals in terms of social rights, roles, statuses, etc.

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45
Q

Intersectionality

A

Posits that various human aspects subject to societal oppression (class, gender, race, gender, etc) do not exist isolated and separated from each other but instead have complex, influential, and interwoven relationships

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46
Q

Which theories can be included under the heading Rational choice theory?

A

Social exchange theory
Game theory
Rational actor theory

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47
Q

What is a rational choice paradigm?

A

Brings a strong economic approach to the analysis of why, when, and how people interact

In all rational choice theories, individuals seek to maximize benefits they gain and minimize the disadvantages they sustain in all of their social interactions

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48
Q

Game theory

A

A theory used to predict large, complex systems, such as the overall behaviour of a population

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49
Q

Social exchange theory

A

studies the social behaviour between two parties that implement a cost-benefit analysis to determine the risks and benefits

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50
Q

Rational actor theory

A

refers to a set of guidelines that help understand economic and social behaviour

basic premise that decisions made by individual actors will collectively produce aggregate social behaviour

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51
Q

What is the fundamental premise that all rational choice paradigms share?

A

That human behaviours are utilitarian

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52
Q

Utilitarianism is based on which two assumptions

A
  1. that individual humans are rational in their actions
  2. that in every human interaction, individuals will seek to maximize their own self interest
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53
Q

Is rational choice theory and its related theories a micro or macro sociological theory?

A

Both
Micro: Because utilitarianism focuses on individual social choices that individuals make

Macro: Because they can also look at the tendencies and behaviours of large groups of people

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54
Q

Criticisms of rational choice theory

A

Assumes the inherent rationality of human actions

Minimizes the role fo culture and subjective meaning in individual and group behaviour

55
Q

Social Institutions

A

Complexes of roles, norms, and values organized into a relatively stable form that contribute to social order by governing the behaviour of people

56
Q

What are the 5 functions that families have tended to serve over history?

A
  1. Reproduction and the monitoring of sexual behaviour
  2. Protection
  3. Socialization- passing down norms and values of society
  4. Affection and companionship
  5. Social status- Social position is often based on family background and reputation
57
Q

Nuclear family

A

Consists of direct blood relations

58
Q

Extended family

A

Grandparents, aunts, uncles and others are included

59
Q

Monogamy

A

Marriage in which two individuals are only married to each other

60
Q

Polygamy

A

An individual has multiple wives or husbands simultaneously

61
Q

Polygyny

A

A man marrying more than one woman

62
Q

Polyandry

A

A woman married to more than one man

63
Q

Endogamy

A

In choosing a mate, refers to the practice of marrying within a particular group

64
Q

Exogamy

A

In choosing a mate, refers to requirements to marry outside a particular group

eg. In almost all cultures it is the norm to prohibit sexual relationships between certain relatives

65
Q

Kinship

A

Familial relationships including blood ties, family ties, and common ancestry

How we think about who we are related to

66
Q

Bilateral descent

A

If a kin group involves both the maternal and paternal relations

67
Q

Patrilineal descent

A

If kin groups have preference for paternal relations

68
Q

Matrilineal descent

A

If kin groups have preference for maternal relations

69
Q

Patriarchy

A

Men have more authority than woman

70
Q

Matriarchy

A

Woman have more authority than men

71
Q

Egalitarian family

A

Spouses are treated as equals and may be involved in more negotiation when making decisions

72
Q

Cohabitation

A

Couples living together without getting married

has been a large increase esp in couples in their 20s and 30s

73
Q

Family violence

A

one member of the family is directly responsible for the threat through their mistreatment of another person often in an attempt to gain power, leaving the target fearful and powerless

74
Q

Child abuse

What are the four categories ?

A

Violence directed toward a child target

  1. Physical abuse
  2. Emotional abuse
  3. Sexual Abuse
  4. Neglect
75
Q

Domestic Abuse

A

dating abuse or spousal abuse

Violence directed toward one partner of an intimate relationship where the abuser is the second partner

76
Q

Elder Abuse

A

Violence directed toward an older target

77
Q

What are the manifest and latent functions of educational institutions ?

A

Manifest: To systematically pass down knowledge and to give status to those who have been educated

Latent: Socialization, serving as agents of change, maintaining social control

78
Q

Hidden curriculum

A

Other, unintentional lessons learned in school

Often conflicts with the manifest curriculum

ex. med students have experience conflict between stated values of their curriculum and the lived reality of hospital when hospital staff actions inadvertently teach them that patients are nuisances

79
Q

Educational Segregation

A

The widening disparity between children from high income neighbourhoods and those from low income neighbourhoods

80
Q

Teacher expectancy theory

A
  • Teachers quickly form expectations of individual students, and once they form these expectations, they tend to act toward the student with these expectations in mind
  • If the student accepts the teacher’s expectations as reasonable, the student will begin to perform in accordance with them as well
81
Q

Educational Stratification

A

A societal mechanism in which individuals are sorted or categorized creating/ reinforcing/ perpetuating inequalities and unequal opportunities

82
Q

Ecclesia

With examples

A
  • A dominant religious organization that includes most members of society
  • is recognized as national or official religion
  • no other religion tolerated
  • often integrated into political institutions and people do not choose to participate but are born into these social institutions

Ex. Sweden (Lutheranism) and Iran (Islam)

83
Q

Church

Examples?

A
  • type of religious organization well integrated into larger society
  • tends to occur by birth but many allow people to join
  • congregations typically concerned with both sacred and ordinary aspects of life
  • well stipulated rules and regulations

ex. USA (Catholic Church)

84
Q

Sect

Examples?

A
  • religious organization distinct from that of a larger society
  • often formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions
  • over time some may develop into churches
  • membership through birth or conversion

Ex. USA (mormon or amish communities)

84
Q

Sect

Examples?

A
  • religious organization distinct from that of a larger society
  • often formed from breaking away from larger religious institutions
  • over time some may develop into churches
  • membership through birth or conversion

Ex. USA (mormon or amish communities)

85
Q

Cult/ New religious movements

examples

A

religious organization far outside society’s norms and often involves a very different lifestyle

Ex. Branch Davidians and Heaven’s Gate

86
Q

Pros and Cons of religion

A

Pros:
- social cohesion
- social change
- Emotional, spiritual, material support
- provide believers with meaning and purpose

Cons:
- Social dissent and violence
- social control

87
Q

Liberation theology

A

The use of the church in a political effort against various social issues such as poverty and injustice

88
Q

Secularization

A

The process through which religion loses its social significance in modern societies

89
Q

Fundamentalism

A

A second response to modernist societies

There is a strong attachment to traditional religious beliefs and practices and a strict adherence to basic religious doctrines resulting from a literalist interpretation of these texts

90
Q

List the five major world religions in order of most common to least common

A
  1. Christianity
  2. Islam
  3. Hinduism
  4. Buddhism
  5. Judaism
91
Q

Characteristics of christianity

A
  • largest single faith in the world
  • multiple denominations
  • Monotheistic (one god)
  • believe in prophets (jesus as the son of god)
  • an afterlife
  • a judgement day
  • ~ 30% of population identify as christian : 80% of americans identify as christian
92
Q

Characteristics of Islam

A
  • second largest religion in the world
  • followers are Muslim
  • Monotheistic (allah)
  • Believe in prophets (Final one is Mohammad)
  • afterlife
  • judgement day
  • muslim governments often dont separate religion and sate, religion often dictates law
  • cultures vary: Veils worn by women is cultural not religious
92
Q

Characteristics of Islam

A
  • second largest religion in the world
  • followers are Muslim
  • Monotheistic (allah)
  • Believe in prophets (Final one is Mohammad)
  • afterlife
  • judgement day
  • muslim governments often dont separate religion and sate, religion often dictates law
  • cultures vary: Veils worn by women is cultural not religious
93
Q

Characteristics of Hinduism

A
  • Developed in India
  • Polytheistic religion (many gods)
  • Major deities: Shiva, Vishnu
  • reincarnation, rebirth after death
  • practiced by ~14% of worlds population
94
Q

Characteristics of Buddhism

A
  • intention is to address the human existence
  • no reliance on supernatural mysteries or myths, including gods
  • ## no worshipping gods, aimed at improvement of each individuals human life throughout their own intention and endeavours
95
Q

Characteristics of Judaism

A
  • Monotheistic (God)
  • formed basis for christianity and islam
  • believe God formed a covenant with Abraham and Sarah, and if certain rules are followed (Ten commandments) god would bring paradise to Earth
96
Q

Religiosity

A

The extent of influence of religion in a person’s life

ex. Fundamentalists: very devout, extreme, adhere strictly to beliefs. Others may adhere to beliefs without rituals, or rituals without beliefs

97
Q

Fundamentalists

A

Very devout to their religion, and extreme form of religiosity

Adhere strictly to religious beliefs

98
Q

Rational-legal authority

A

A form of leadership that is organized around rational legal rules

Eg. USA: Legal rules and regulations are stipulated in a document like the Constitution

99
Q

3 types of authority

A
  1. Rational legal authority
  2. Traditional Authority
  3. Charismatic authority
100
Q

Traditional Authority

A

A form of leadership where power is due to custom, tradition, or accepted practice

101
Q

Charismatic Authority

A

A form of leadership where devotion is reliant upon an individual with exceptional charisma

102
Q

Aristarchic governments

2 types

A
  • controlled by small group of people with decision making power
  • group is selected based on specific qualifications
  • Public not involved in most political decisions
  • Include 2 types:
  1. aristocracies: Ruled by elite citizens, noble births
  2. meritocracies: Ruled by the meritorious, those with record of meaningful social contributions
103
Q

Autocratic Governments

2 types examples

A
  • controlled by single person or selective small group
  • absolute decision making power

Include

  1. Dictatorships: ruled by one person
  2. Fascist governments: ruled by small group of leaders
104
Q

Monarchic Governments

2 types

A
  • controlled by single person or selective small group
  • inherited their leadership role
  • ex. King and Queen
  1. Absolute monarchy
  2. Constitutional monarchy: leaders are limited through formal constitutions
105
Q

Authoritarian Governments

1 example

A
  • unelected leaders
  • public may have some individual freedoms, but no control over leaders
  1. Totalitarianism: unelected leaders regulate both public and private life through coercive means of control
106
Q

Democratic Governments

2 types

A
  • Elected leaders
  • public has some degree of political decision making power through either direct decisions or with representation choice (voting)
  1. Direct democracies: direct public participation
  2. Representative democracies: indirect public participation through voting/ election of representatives
107
Q

Oligarchic governments

example

A
  • leaders are elected or unelected
  • public may have power to vote for representation
  • but people have little influence in decisions and social change

ex. Theocracies: governments ruled by religious elite

108
Q

Republican governments

A
  • are democratic in nature: consider their countries to be public concerns
  • the people have the supreme power in these societies
109
Q

Federalist governments

A
  • include a governing representative head that shares power with constituent groups
  • division between central (federal) gov and the constituent governments or the state, provincial, and local govs
110
Q

Parliamentary governments

A
  • both executive and legislative branches that are interconnected
  • members of the executive branch (ministers) are accountable to members of the legislature
111
Q

Presidential governments

A

include organizing branches as well as a head of state

112
Q

Anarchy

A

societies without a public government, “lawlessness”

113
Q

Economics

A

concerned with the production, distribution and consumption of resources. both goods and services

114
Q

What are the main four types of economic structures? Define them

A
  1. Command/ Planned economies
  • economic decisions based on a plan of production and the means of production are often public (state owned)
  • include socialism and communism
  1. Market
  • economic decisions based on the market
  • “supply and demand”
  • means of production often private
  • includes laissez-faire and free market economies
  1. Mixed
  • blend of command and market
  • both private and public ownership
  • eg. public oversight and funding. private production.
  1. Traditional
  • Consider social customs in economic decisions
  • most common in rural areas
  • involves bartering and trading
115
Q

What are thought to be advantages of capitalism

A
  • benefits the consumer by allowing for competition –> theoretically promotes higher quality and lower price of goods and services

-emphasizes personal freedom by limiting government restrictions and regulations

116
Q

Socialism

A

An economic system where resources and production are collectively owned

  • includes system of production and distribution designed to satisfy human needs instead of for profit
  • driving force in socialist societies is collective goals : everyone is given a job and everyone provided with what they need to survive
  • economy is usually centrally controlled and run by government
117
Q

Communism

A

specific socialist structure in which there is common ownership of the means of production
but
absence of currencies, classes, states, based on shared economic, political and social ideologies

118
Q

Welfare Capitalism

A

most of the economy is private, but there are extensive social welfare programs to serve certain needs within society

ex. common in western europe where most economies are based on capitalist principle

119
Q

State capitalism

A

companies are privately run but work closely with the government in forming laws and regulations

ex. In USA, most businesses privately owned but gov runs many operations (schools, postal, museums, military)

120
Q

Professions

A

Highly esteemed white collar occupations that require a great deal of education

121
Q

Division of Labour

A

When societies become so complex that an individual cannot meet their needs alone (due to capitalism)

Different occupations specialized to serve different needs

Interdependent society because individuals cannot participate in all of the activities required for survival

122
Q

Pros and Cons of division of labour

A

Pros:
- increased rate of production

Cons:
- decreased similarities in social experience among individuals, contributes to class differences

123
Q

What are the two forms of social solidarity in relation to economic approaches? describe them

A

Mechanical solidarity: allows society to remain integrated because individuals have common beliefs that lead to each person having the same fundamental experience

Organic Solidarity: Allows society to integrate through a division of labor, which leads to each person having a different personal experience; each movement is distinguishable and separate

124
Q

Describe the difference between primary, secondary, and tertiary care

A

Primary care: The care providers responsible for ongoing PREVENTATIVE care or disease management or community based care
eg. urgent care centre

Secondary care: includes ACUTE care and specialty care often following a referral from a Primary care provider
eg. ED

Tertiary care: very specialized care, based on consultations with specialist care providers. In hospitals or care facilities designed specifically for patients with limited set of conditions
eg. Cancer hospital, burn centre, palliative care facilities

125
Q

Medical Model of disease vs

Social model of Disease

A

MEDICAL: Characterizes all illness as having pathological or physiological basis
- emphasizes physical or medical factors as the cause of all illness

SOCIAL: Emphasizes the effect of one’s social class, employment status, neighbourhood, exposure to environmental toxins, diet, etc can have on a persons health
- social pressures create conditions for health and illness

126
Q

Medicalization

A

The process by which a condition comes to be reconceptualized as a disease with a medical diagnosis and a medical treatment

127
Q

Social epidemiology

A

A field that studies how social organization contributes to the prevalence, incidence and distribution of disease across and within populations

128
Q

Food desert

A

An area where healthy, fressh food is hard to find because there are no proper grocery stores

Makes people more likely to eat high calorie foods that have low nutritional value

129
Q

What are the two concepts/ roles that can describe what illness is like for a patient? describe them.

A

SICK ROLE: Describes society’s response to illness

ILLNESS EXPERIENCE: The patient’s subjective experience of illness

130
Q

What did Talcott Parsons say about the sick role?

A
  • when ill, a person isnt able to be a contributing member of society
  • being ill is a type of deviance
  • Others must take up the extra work, consider the persons illness to be legitimate, and not blaming the person for their illness
  • in return, the ill person must fulfill the role obligations of an ill person: seek medical care and make a sincere attempt to get well
131
Q

Relative poverty

A

An inability to meet the average standard of living within a society

MCAT Psych and Soc (3 decks)

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