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mcat bio textbook > ch. 9 > Flashcards

ch. 9 Flashcards

1
Q

how does the circulatory system help maintain homeostasis

A

distribute nutrients, transport O2 from lungs and CO2 to lungs, maintain temp, blood clotting, etc

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2
Q

the flow of blood through a tissue is known as ?? inadequate flow is called? lack of O2 is called?

A

flow of blood is known as perfusion. inadequate flow is called ischemia. lack of O2 is hypoxia

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3
Q

the heart is what? what are arteries (include pressure)? what are veins (include pressure)?

A

heart is a muscular pump that pushes blood using vessels to lungs and body.
arteries: carry blood AWAY from heart at high pressure
veins: carry blood TOWARDS heart at low pressure

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4
Q

what is the sequence of small vessels starting at arteries? what occurs to pressure as vessels branch out?

A

arteries branch out to arterioles, to capillaries, into venules that go back to veins to the heart. as vessels get smaller, the pressure decreases

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5
Q

do arterioles or veins have muscular walls? if any of them do, why do they need muscular walls?

A

arterioles have muscular walls while veins do not. they have muscular walls to constrict or dilate when needed to control blood flow into capillaries.

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6
Q

what is the inner lining of vessels called? what does it have to do with inflammation?

A

the inner lining is made up of endothelial cells and white blood cells bind to these cells to cause inflammation

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7
Q

what is angiogenesis? thrombosis?

A

angiogenesis is formation of new blood vessels. thrombosis is blood clotting

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8
Q

dysfunction of endothelial cells causes what

A

hypertension, heart disease, etc

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9
Q

the right side of the heart has what blood and takes it where? what circulation is this?

A

blood from heart to the lungs and carries deoxygenated blood. this is pulmonary circulation

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10
Q

the left side of the heart has what blood and takes it where? what circulation is this?

A

blood from heart to the rest of the body and carries oxygenated blood. this is systemic circulation

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11
Q

what does having two circulation pathways solve?

A

it allows more blood to pass through only one set of capillaries except portal systems

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12
Q

what are portal systems? what are the two that we have?

A

portal systems are an arrangement by which blood collected from one set of capillaries passes through a large vessel to another set of capillaries before going back to the heart. the two we have is the hepatic portal system and the hypothalamic-hypophysial (hypothalamus to pituitary)

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13
Q

the heart has two chambers?

A

the heart has atria that are reservoirs or waiting rooms where blood collects before getting pumped into ventricles. the other chamber is the ventricle that is muscular and pump blood out at high pressures into the arteries.

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14
Q

where does each side of the atria/ ventricle get their blood from (include vessels that supply it)?

A

the right atria gets deoxy blood from veins called inferior vena cava and superior vena cava and sends it to the ventricle to pump to pulmonary artery. the left atria gets blood from the pulmonary vein to send it to the ventricle to pump out from the aorta.

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15
Q

the aorta branches into where? what does this supply?

A

it branches into the coronary arteries and supplies blood to the heart wall

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16
Q

what is a sinus? what is an example of one?

A

an open space , we have the coronary sinus where a pool of low pressure blood and flows to right atria.

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17
Q

valves help with what? what is the general name of the one between the atria and ventricles?

A

valves help with one way flow of blood within the heart and other vessels due to pressure differences. the general name of the valves in the heart are all atrioventricular (AV valve) between the atria and ventricles

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18
Q

the AV valve between the right chambers is called? the AV valve between the left is called?

A

right is called bicuspid or mitral valve while the left is called tricuspid valve.

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19
Q

what are the valves in between the aorta and pulmonary artery? what are they both called together?

A

the right side has the pulmonary valve and the aorta has the aortic semilunar valve. they are both known as semilunar valves.

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20
Q

do veins have valves? what does backflow of blood cause in veins?

A

yes they do, it causes varicose veins

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21
Q

the cardiac cycle is divided in two periods, name and define them.

A

diastole: ventricles are relaxed and atria are contracted
systole: ventricles contract causing AV valves to shut and the semilunar valves to open to allow blood flow to arteries, ventricles have low pressure here

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22
Q

how is the lub dub sound created? what occurs in lub and what occurs in dub?

A

it is produced by the valves shutting. lub occurs by closing of AV and dub occurs by semilunar valves closing

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23
Q

what is heart rate/pulse? what is avg HR

A

the number of times lub dub is repeated per min. avg HR is 45 bpm in athletes and 80 bpm in elders and kids

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24
Q

what is the stroke volume? the cardiac output (add formula)?

A

stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped with each systole. cardiac output is the total amount of blood pumped per min, formula is SV times HR

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25
Q

how can we increase cardiac output? what is this mechanism called and how do we do this

A

we increase CO by increasing HR and SV and this is the frank-starling mechanism: this occurs by stretching the heart muscle and filling it with blood, more blood in heart means more forcefully push increasing CO

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26
Q

how can we increase the blood coming into the heart

A

by increasing blood volume by retaining water and contracting large veins

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27
Q

how does cardiac muscle contract

A

muscle cells propagate AP through gap junctions by depol

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28
Q

what is the difference between neurons and cardiac cells

A

cardiac cells act as a functional syncytium: a tissue where cell cytoplasms are connected through gap junctions

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29
Q

where at the gap junctions found in the heart

A

intercalated disks, the connections by cardiac cells

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30
Q

why is AP delayed in the heart?

A

it is delayed as it passes through conduction system called the AV node to allow blood to fill the atria.

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31
Q

what channels do cardiac cells need to make AP?

A

they need fast and slow sodium channels and calcium channels. they allow longer depol

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32
Q

to make sure the AP gets communicated by all cells, what structure exists to help with this?

A

t tubules, that exist in skeletal muscle cells too

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33
Q

the heart contractions are controlled by what?

A

the sinoatrial (SA) node, the cells here are the pace makers of the heart

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34
Q

while neurons nor hormones cause heart contractions, what do they impact

A

contractibility of the heart (force of contraction)

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35
Q

what are the 3 phases that SA node goes through

A

phase 4: automatic slow depol caused by sodium leak channels
phase 0: upstroke of pacemaker potential, cells are brought up to threshold caused by influx of calcium
phase 3: repolarization caused by the closing of calcium channels and opening of potassium channels

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36
Q

what starts SA contractions FIRST, whats different about its RMP

A

sodium leak channels IMPORTANT, its RMP is unstable

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37
Q

what is the pathway that travels from SA to AV called

A

internodal tract

38
Q

SA node fires how much? what causes any changes to this, if any?

A

it fires super fast but PNS makes it slower to 60-80bpm by using the vagus nerve releasing ACH inhibiting depol of SA

39
Q

how can sympathetic system affect the heart

A

by releasing norepinephrine it can increase contractions and heart rate

40
Q

how does the heart monitor heart pressure

A

it uses baroreceptors send sends info to CNS

41
Q

what is the force opposing blood flow? what NS controls this

A

it is friction and causes resistance, the Symph NS

42
Q

what is blood pressure? what is the top number? the bottom?

A

systemic arterial pressure which is the force per unit area exerted by blood upon the walls of arteries.
the top number is the systolic pressure where highest pressure occurs because ventricular contraction.
the bottom number is the diastolic pressure which is the lowest pressure between heart beats

43
Q

does NS control blood flow to tissues? why or why not?

A

it does not, if tissues need more blood, they will ask for it themselves by local autoregulation

44
Q

blood is made up of what three things? define them

A

plasma: made up of cells and cellular elements called formed elements
White Blood Cells: leukocytes and platelets
Hematocrit (RBC called erythrocytes)

45
Q

plasma has what specific things that we need

A

electrolytes, buffered and proteins made by liver like fibrinogen and immunoglobin

46
Q

what is the main metabolic waste we make? the other?

A

main is urea from AA breakdown and bilirubin made by heme

47
Q

what hormone stimulates creation of RBC? where is it made?

A

erythropoietin and made by kidney. simulates bone marrow to make RBCs

48
Q

blood typing is what? name the two blood groups

A

blood typing is the classification of blood based on the presence or absence of surface antigens. you have ABO blood group and Rh blood group (- or +)

49
Q

ABO uses what genetic inheritance? Rh?

A

ABO uses codominance while Rh uses dominant pattern

50
Q

what can occur when given wrong blood?

A
51
Q

what is universal donor? acceptor?

A

donor: o- acceptor: AB-

52
Q

what are the monocytes? what do they do?

A

macrophages are monocytes and eat debris and move around

53
Q

what are the lymphocytes? what do they do?

A

B cells: mature into plasma and produce antibodies
T cells: kill virus infected cells, tumor, and grafts

54
Q

what are the granulocytes

A

neutrophils: eat bacteria
eosinophil: destroys parasites
basophil: store and release histamine

55
Q

what do platelets do, what is the name of process that stops bleeding

A

they cause blood clotting by aggregating at damage site and creating a plug, the process is called hemostasis

56
Q

what protein is used in blood clotting? what is the zymogen and what vitamin also helps with clotting

A

we use fibrin that comes from zymogen called fibrinogen that gets cleaved by thrombin. vitamin k helps with clotting

57
Q

why does oxygen need to be carried by hemoglobin? what makes up hemoglobin? how many O2 molecules can each hemoglobin carry

A

because it is too hydrophobic. hemoglobin has 4 subunits with each one containing a heme that binds to the O2. it can carry 4

58
Q

what 3 things decrease O2 affinity? what does it mean to decrease affinity

A
  1. low blood ph
  2. too much CO2
  3. temp
    decrease affinity is to let go
59
Q

what are the three ways CO2 gets transported

A
  1. most gets converted to carbonic acid by carbonic anhydrase
  2. some gets moved by being stuck to hemoglobin
  3. some gets dissolved
60
Q

where does the exchange of nutrients and waste occur

A

in the capillaries because there intercellular clefts where they pass through

61
Q

water leaving capillaries can cause what

A

swelling or edema

62
Q

what is the lymphatic system

A

a one way flow system that begins with small lymphatic vessels in tissues and merging into a larger vessel called the thoratic duct

63
Q

the fluid in the lymphatic system is called what and where does it get filtered

A

its called lymph and gets filtered by lymph nodes

64
Q

what are the three types of immunity

A
  1. innate immunity
  2. humoral immunity
  3. autoimmunity
65
Q

what is innate immunity

A

general, nonspecific protection the body provides like skin, lysozymes

66
Q

what is humoral immunity

A

protein protection by antibodies

67
Q

what are antibodies ?

A

antibodies can ID specific microorganisms, antibodies are also called immunoglobins.

68
Q

IgM

A

found in blood and B cells, involved in initial response

69
Q

IgG

A

located in blood involved in ongoing immune response. most common

70
Q

IgD

A

located on B cell serves with IgM as antigen receptor

71
Q

IgA

A

secretions like milk to protect babies

72
Q

IgE

A

blood involved in Allergic rxns

73
Q

what binds to an antibody

A

antigen which are big molecules that have different recognition sites for different antibodies

74
Q

Ab’s are produced by what cells? what else do these cells do?

A

B cells, these cells can be memory cells

75
Q

what is primary immune response? secondary?

A

primary: too slow to prevent symptoms but induces b cells to proliferate and takes about a week or more.
secondary: response to Ag quick and swift

76
Q

what two types of T cells do we have? what do they do?

A

t helpers (CD4) activate b cells and killer t cells
t killer (CD8) kills

77
Q

what gland makes T cells in childhood? what hormone does it make

A

thymus and it makes thymosin which produces T cells

78
Q

what is a major histocompatibility complex. what are the two that we have

A

a group of proteins that our cells have to watch whats going on. we have MHC 1 and MHC 2

79
Q

MHC 1:

A

proteins found nucleated cells and picks peptide from inside cell to outside to show t cell whats going on inside

80
Q

MHC 2:

A

some cells have this protein and these cells are called antigen presenting cells. chopped up particles are displayed by MHC 2 to allow T cells to call for b cell to recognize it

81
Q

what are other tissue that are involved in immune response

A

bone marrow, lymphnodes, spleed, thymus, tonsils, and addendix

82
Q

what is immune tolerance

A

when the IS ignores its own cells and proteins

83
Q

self AG can cause what? how does body regulate self AG’s

A

self AG’s attach out own body. the regulate by having B cells that notice them and kill them. those that arent killed cause autoimmune response

84
Q
A
85
Q

How does exercise increase blood pressure?

A

It increases muscle contraction which increases cardiac output

86
Q

Exercise causes vasoconstriction or vasodilation?

A

Vasodilation

87
Q

What occurs to GFR if we increase blood pressure?

A

Filtration rate increases

88
Q

Angiotensin is not a substrate for

A

ACE

89
Q

Amylase hydrolysis what

A

Starch into maltose

90
Q

The alimentary canal drains into what portal system?

A

The hepatic portal system: elementary canal includes the stomach, small intestines and colon

91
Q
A

mcat bio textbook (10 decks)

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