Ch. 9

Question 1

Amount of Practice

Level of Original Learning

Answer 1

Level of Original Learning
-Level of performance achieved in acquisition
-Ways of increasing the level of original learning
~~difficult criterion of mastery
~~difficult practice of conditions (less feedback, variable practice, and increased contextual interference)

Question 2

Structuring the Practice Session

Answer 2

Practice conditions should match real-world conditions to avoid a shift in required underlying abilities

-Specificity of sensory feedback
Specificity of context
Specificity of cognitive processing

Question 3

Variability of Practice

Answer 3

Schema Theory: variability is the degree of varying the way in which skills are performed during practice
GMP
Schema
Constant v. Variable Practice conditions

Question 4

Variability of Practice (2)

Answer 4

Particularly effective practice method for young children
Promotes greater generalizability of learning.
Practitioner must decide when to introduce variability into the practice setting. Two guiding principles include:
Do not introduce until learner understands dynamics of the task.
Type of variability should differ with type of skill and performance environment (Regulatory v. Non regulatory conditions)

Question 5

Contextual Interference

Answer 5

The increased difficulty as a result of introducing three or more task in the same practice session
AAA, BBB, CCC -Blocked practice (LOW CI)
ABAABCCBC -Random practice (HIGH CI)

High CI enhance a learner’s ability to remember skill related information (CI effect)

Question 6

The Contextual Interference Effect

Answer 6

The following factors should be considered when deciding how much CI is appropriate for a given practice session: Task characteristics
Learner Characteristics
-Age
-Level of Experience
-Intellectual Capacity
-Learning Style

Question 7

Measurement of Performance, Learning and Transfer

Answer 7

The effectiveness of random practice schedules is rarely evident if measured ONLY on the basis of performance
Retention/Transfer tests are useful in identifying the learning related superiority of groups who practice according to a random practice schedule

Question 8

Elaboration View

Answer 8

Random practice leads to cognitive processing activities that make the memory more distinctive
All variations of task are stored in working memory which provides learner with opportunity to compare and contrast
Recall is enhanced because the memory of each skill variation is more distinctive

Question 9

Action-Plan Reconstruction View

Answer 9

Learners involved in random practice are required to continually regenerate the plan of action each time the variation is presented
Parts of or, all of the previous plan is forgotten between practice attempts and must be regenerated
Plan of action strengthened as a result of “break down and building up” process

Question 10

The Spacing of Practice

Answer 10

The practitioner must decide: how many practice to schedule each week and how to space/distribute practice within each session
Distributed practice
Massed Practice

Distributed practice schedules produce immediate improvements in performance vs. massed practice. The learning differences appear to be minimal however.

The type of practice schedule chosen may ultimately be determined by the type of skill to be learned.

Question 11

Distributed Practice

Answer 11

The amount of “rest” time is equal to or, greater than the amount of “practice” time

Question 12

Massed Practice

Answer 12

The amount of “practice” time is considerably higher than the “rest” time

Question 13

Other Ways to Enhance Effectiveness of Practice

Answer 13

A number of instructional techniques can be used to increase the effectiveness of a practice session:
Guidance Techniques
Whole v. Part Task Strategies
Attentional Cueing and Whole Practice

Question 14

Guidance Techniques

Answer 14

Range from intermittent verbally given performance cue to mechanical performance aids (i.e. harness)
Physical guidance is used to guide early skill attempts and/or provide physiological support to a young learner/patient
Manual guidance, if overused, can have negative consequences on learning (e.g. over dependance)

Question 15

Whole v. Part Task Strategies

Answer 15

What is it about certain skills that make part-task training effective or, ineffective?
Nature of the skill
-Inherent complexity (number of components) and organization (interdependence of components)
Capabilities of the learner

Question 16

Part v. Whole Strategies

Answer 16

Low in complexity and high in organization (i.e. whole practice) (e.g. juggling)

High in complexity and low in organization (i.e. part practice) (e.g. dance routine)

Question 17

Part-Practice Method

Answer 17

Segmentation
Simplification
Fractionization

Question 18

Segmentation

Answer 18

Part-Practice Method
Separating the skill into parts and then practicing the parts so that after one part is practiced, it is then practiced together with the next part, and so on.

Question 19

Simplification

Answer 19

Part-Practice Method

Reducing the difficulty of specific parts of features of a skill

Question 20

Fractionization

Answer 20

Part-Practice Method

Practicing each arm separately before performing with arms together (in bimanual skills)

Question 21

Attentional Cueing and Whole Practice

Answer 21

This type of practice method represents a compromised between part and whole practice methods
The learner’s attention is directed to one component of the skill while the ensile is practiced in its entirety
Advantages: the technique conserves the spatial and temporal characteristics of the skill

Question 22

Mental Practice

Answer 22

Duration of mental practice: less time is needed for movement skills higher in cognitive components
Amount of mental v. physical practice: mental practice serves only as a supplement to physical practice
Type of imagery: both internal and external forms of imagery should be encouraged
Focus of Attention: uncertain with regard to form or outcome
Mental Practice Schedule: Better to engage in mental practice before, rather than after, engaging in physical practice

Question 23

Physiological Basis of Mental Practice

Answer 23

Changes in heart and respiratory rates during imagery were similar to those found during actual execution of the movement
Imagery activates many of the same physiological/subcortical areas as does the actual physical execution
EMG activity during imagery appears to “prime” the muscles rather than mirror what happens during movement execution

Question 24

Amount of Practice

Level of Over-Learning

Answer 24

Level of Over-Learning

• Amount of practice after the criterion
• Over-learning produces superior long-term retention and elite performance