Chap 1

Question 1

Who were the early film makers studied in class? ___,___ and ___ ,___

Answer 1

Thomas Alva Edison

Louis and Auguste Limiere

Geroges Melies

Question 2

what is mise-en-scene?

Answer 2

“the fact of putting into the scene”

Question 3

Film Making Phases (3)

Answer 3

Pre-Production

Production

Post-Production

Question 4

What are the agents of the film making phases?

(4)

Answer 4

1) Director (auteurs and matteurs en scene

2) Screenwriter

3) Actor

4) Spectator

Question 5

Difference between Realism and Formalism?

Answer 5

Realism: Formalism:
Content ————————– Beauty

Representative ——————- Self referential

Non distortion ——————- Authorial intrusion

Minimally mediated ———– Symbolic

Question 6

_________ is a crucial component of most films and refers to the way in which a story is told

Answer 6

Narrative

Question 7

Narrative encompasses elements like ____, ______, ______, _____

Answer 7

plot, character, setting, theme

Question 8

The basic elements of narrative structure include
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Answer 8

exposition

rising action

climax

falling action

resolution

Question 9

Exposition (in narrative structure) is what??

Answer 9

Setting up the story and introducing characters

Question 10

Rising action (in narrative structure) is what??

Answer 10

The main action begins to unfold

Question 11

Climax (in narrative structure) is what??

Answer 11

The turning point of the story

Question 12

Falling action (in narrative structure) is what??

Answer 12

The resolution of the conflict

Question 13

Resolution (in narrative structure) is what??

Answer 13

The story comes to a conclusion

Question 14

Setting up the story and introducing characters is

Answer 14

Exposition

Question 15

The main action begins to unfold is called

Answer 15

Rising Action

Question 16

The turning point of the story is called

Answer 16

Climax

Question 17

The resolution of the conflict called

Answer 17

Falling Action

Question 18

The story comes to a conclusion called

Answer 18

Resolution

Question 19

The 3 Different types of narrative structures are

Answer 19

Linear

Non Linear

Eposodic

Question 20

A narrative structure told in chronological order is ..

Answer 20

Linear

Question 21

A narrative structure told out of order is ..

Answer 21

Non-Linear

Question 22

A narrative structure that is broken into distinct segments is..

Answer 22

Episodic

Question 23

The use of ____ and ____ techniques can disrupt the linear progression of a narrative and provide additional context and information about characters and events.

Answer 23

Flashback and Flashforward

Question 24

The way in which a story is ____ can affect the audiences understanding and interpretation of the events.

Answer 24

Narrated

Question 25

______ refers to a film director who is considered to be the primary creative driving force behind a film

Answer 25

Auteur

Question 26

Auteur means..

Answer 26

“director as author”

Question 27

Matteurs en scene are..

Answer 27

A film maker who is more focussed on the technical aspects of film making such as lighting and camera angles rather than on storytelling or thematic elements.

Question 28

______ are film makers who are more focussed on the technical aspects of film making, such as lighting and camera angles, rather than on storytelling or thematic elements.

Answer 28

Matteurs en scene

Question 29

_____ are writers who create the screenplay

Answer 29

Screenwriters

Question 30

Realism refers to an approach that….

Answer 30

Attempts to depict the world as it is, often using naturalistic acting, locations, and lighting.

– Authenticity and believability
– Often documentary style to capture lived experiences of their characters
– Often emphasizes social and political issues

Question 31

Formalism refers to an approach that….

Answer 31

Emphasizes filmmaking’s formal or stylistic elements, such as cinematography, editing, and sound design.

– Highly stylized or artificial world that emphasizes the SUBJECTIVE experience of the viewer rather than depicting reality as it is.

– often themes of beauty, emotion, and expression

Question 32

Mise-en-scene refers to..

Answer 32

Everything that appears on screen. (overall aesthetic)

Set Design
Costumes
Props
Lighting
Actors

Question 33

_____ is the process of designing and costuming the physical environment in which a scene takes place

Answer 33

Set design

Question 34

___ are objects that are used by actors or placed on set to help create a sense of realism in atmosphere

Answer 34

Props

Question 35

___ is used to create different moods and emotions as well as to highlight certain objects or characters

Answer 35

Lighting

Question 36

____ is the process of designing and creating the clothing word by actors which reveal information about their character or the period in which the film takes place.

Answer 36

Costume Design

Question 37

____ is the process of creating and integrating all of the different types of sound in a film

Answer 37

Sound Design

Question 38

____ are the spoken words of the characters, which can reveal information about their personalities and emotions

Answer 38

Diologue

Question 39

Music serves to create a certain __ or __ as well as to signify a change in __ or ___.

Answer 39

Mood or Emotion
Tone or Pace

Question 40

_______ are the use of artificial sounds to enhance the realism of a scene such as footsteps or gunshots.

Answer 40

Sound effects

Question 41

_________ are natural sounds that occur in a scene, such as the sound of traffic

Answer 41

Ambient

Question 42

CGI stands for ______.

Answer 42

Computer Generated Imagery

Question 43

______ is a soundproof building often windowless.

Answer 43

Soundstage

Question 44

Set decorating happens in which department?

Answer 44

Art department

Question 45

“Do the right thing” can be categorized as what genres? (2)

Answer 45

Drama and social commentary

Question 46

“Do the right thing” follows what kind of narrative structure?

Answer 46

Linear

Question 47

Do the right thing is created by who?

Answer 47

Spike Lee

Question 48

What are 2 key concepts of mise-en-scene?

Answer 48

Composition and Dominance

Question 49

Composition and dominance are 2 key concepts in what?

Answer 49

Mise-en-scene

Question 50

High-key lighting is..

Answer 50

A lighting technique characterized by bright, even illumination with minimal shadows, often used to create a cheerful, optimistic, or glamorous atmosphere

Question 51

Low-key lighting is..

Answer 51

A lighting technique that utilizes strong contrasts between light and dark areas, resulting in a predominantly dark or shadowy scene. It is often used to evoke a sense of mystery, suspense, or drama. (chiaroscuro)

Question 52

Backlighting is..

Answer 52

The placement of a light source behind the subject, creating a rim or halo effect around the edges. It adds depth and separation between the subject and the background, and can create silhouettes or highlight specific elements.

Question 53

A key light is..

Answer 53

The primary light source in a scene that provides the main illumination and sets the overall mood. It is typically the brightest light and positioned to the side or above the subject.

Question 54

A fill light is..

Answer 54

A secondary light source used to fill in the shadows created by the key light. It helps to balance the overall lighting, reducing the contrast between light and dark areas.

Question 55

A rim light is..

Answer 55

A light source positioned behind the subject to create a highlight along its contours, separating it from the background and adding depth.

Question 56

Top-lighting is..

Answer 56

Light that comes from directly above the subject, casting downward shadows. It can create a dramatic or intense effect, often used in horror or suspense genres.

Question 57

Soft-lighting is..

Answer 57

Diffused, gentle lighting that produces soft shadows and smooth transitions between light and dark areas. It is achieved by using large light sources or diffusers.

Question 58

Hard-lighting is..

Answer 58

Direct, intense lighting that creates sharp and distinct shadows. It is produced by smaller light sources or by positioning the light source close to the subject.

Question 59

Practical-Light is

Answer 59

Lighting sources that are visible within the scene itself, such as lamps, candles, or streetlights. They contribute to the realism and ambiance of the setting.

Question 60

Shot scope is

Answer 60

How wide or narrow the shot is

Question 61

Camera angle is

Answer 61

The angle at which the camera is pointed at the subject matter

Question 62

Where does the term mise-en-scene come from?

Answer 62

Theatre

Question 63

Setting, character, lighting, and composition are all part of what?

Answer 63

Mise-en-scene

Question 64

Who is the point person for the overall aesthetic design of a film or series?

Answer 64

Production Designer

Question 65

CGI is commonly made using ____ technology.

Answer 65

Green Screen

Question 66

In post-production, software picks out the particular colour and replaces it with imagery, this process is called ___.

Answer 66

Keying

Question 67

The person in charge of keeping track of props on stage is called ___.

Answer 67

Prop Master

Question 68

Setting is..

Answer 68

The time and place in which a story takes place, including the physical, social, and cultural environment that provides the backdrop and context for the narrative. It encompasses elements such as geographical location, time period, weather conditions, architecture, landscapes, and cultural or historical context. The setting influences the mood, tone, and overall feel of the story and helps to create a sense of realism and authenticity.

Question 69

____ are lights that are off camera and spcifically designed to light a film set

Answer 69

Set lights

Question 70

Available light is..

Answer 70

From sun or permanent fixtures in the space

Question 71

A fill light does what…

Answer 71

Fills shadows a strong key-light might create.

Question 72

A back light does what…

Answer 72

Helps separate the subject from the background

Question 73

___ refers to the arrangement of people, objects, and setting within a frame of an image.

Answer 73

Composition

Question 74

___ and ___ are the 2 components of a composition

Answer 74

Movement and framing

Question 75

Movement (in composition) refer to… (2)

Answer 75

Movement within the frame and the movement of frame as the cinematographer moves the camera through the scene.

Question 76

A genre of dark and cynical crime films characterized by a pessimistic worldview, moral ambiguity, and visual style. It often features hard-boiled detectives, femme fatales, shadowy cinematography, and intricate narratives with themes of crime, corruption, and moral ambiguity.

Answer 76

Film noir

Question 77

Film noir

Answer 77

A genre of dark and cynical crime films characterized by a pessimistic worldview, moral ambiguity, and visual style. It often features hard-boiled detectives, femme fatales, shadowy cinematography, and intricate narratives with themes of crime, corruption, and moral ambiguity.

Question 78

A genre featuring songs and dance numbers integrated into the storyline. It combines music, performances, and choreography to enhance storytelling and create an emotional connection with the audience.

Answer 78

musical

Question 79

A genre that portrays events, settings, and characters from the past, often with a focus on real historical events or figures. It aims to depict specific time periods and bring historical context to life.

Answer 79

Historical

Question 80

A genre focused on portraying the experiences, conflicts, and impacts of war. It explores the themes of sacrifice, heroism, camaraderie, and the consequences of warfare on individuals and society.

Answer 80

War

Question 81

A genre that incorporates magical or supernatural elements, often set in imaginary worlds or realms. It involves mythical creatures, extraordinary powers, and epic quests, allowing for escapism and imaginative storytelling.

Answer 81

Fantasy

Question 82

What are Propp’s functions?

Answer 82

Propp’s Functions refer to the narrative roles or character functions identified by Russian scholar Vladimir Propp in his book “Morphology of the Folktale.” Propp analyzed fairy tales and identified 31 recurring functions performed by characters in the narrative structure. These functions include the hero, villain, donor, dispatcher, and princess, among others. Propp’s functions provide a framework for understanding the underlying structure and patterns of traditional folk narratives.

Question 83

A genre of dark and cynical crime films characterized by a pessimistic worldview, moral ambiguity, and visual style. It often features hard-boiled detectives, femme fatales, shadowy cinematography, and intricate narratives with themes of crime, corruption, and moral ambiguity.

Answer 83

Film noir

Question 84

Emerged in during the 1920s, characterized by highly stylized and dramatic visual elements. These films often feature distorted and exaggerated sets, use of shadows and lighting to create a sense of unease, and psychological themes. It explores the darker aspects of human nature and societal anxieties.

Answer 84

German Expressionism

Question 85

A cinematic movement that emerged in France during the late 1950s and early 1960s. It emphasized innovation, experimentation, and personal expression in filmmaking. It often utilized handheld cameras, jump cuts, natural lighting, and non-linear narratives, challenging traditional filmmaking conventions and reflecting the changing social and cultural landscape.

Answer 85

French New Wave

Question 86

French New Wave

Answer 86

A cinematic movement that emerged in France during the late 1950s and early 1960s. It emphasized innovation, experimentation, and personal expression in filmmaking. It often utilized handheld cameras, jump cuts, natural lighting, and non-linear narratives, challenging traditional filmmaking conventions and reflecting the changing social and cultural landscape.

Question 87

Italian Neo-Realism

Answer 87

A post-World War II film movement in Italy characterized by realistic storytelling, use of non-professional actors, and location shooting. Italian Neorealist films focused on everyday life, social issues, and the struggles of ordinary people. They sought to portray the harsh realities of post-war Italy and bring attention to social injustices.

Question 88

A post-World War II film movement in Italy characterized by realistic storytelling, use of non-professional actors, and location shooting. These films focused on everyday life, social issues, and the struggles of ordinary people. They sought to portray the harsh realities of post-war Italy and bring attention to social injustices.

Answer 88

Italian-Neo Realism

Question 89

Surrealism

Answer 89

An artistic and film movement that emerged in the early 20th century, emphasizing the exploration of the subconscious mind, dreams, and irrational elements. Surrealist films often feature bizarre and dreamlike imagery, non-linear narratives, and symbolic motifs. They aim to challenge traditional storytelling and conventional interpretations of reality.

Question 90

An artistic and film movement that emerged in the early 20th century, emphasizing the exploration of the subconscious mind, dreams, and irrational elements. These films often feature bizarre and dreamlike imagery, non-linear narratives, and symbolic motifs. They aim to challenge traditional storytelling and conventional interpretations of reality.

Answer 90

Surrealism

Question 91

A genre of dark and cynical crime films characterized by a pessimistic worldview, moral ambiguity, and visual style. It often features hard-boiled detectives, femme fatales, shadowy cinematography, and intricate narratives with themes of crime, corruption, and moral ambiguity.

Answer 91

Film noir

Question 92

African Americans in Cinema

Answer 92

African Americans in cinema refers to the representation, contributions, and experiences of African American filmmakers, actors, and stories in the film industry. Historically, African Americans faced significant challenges and stereotypes in mainstream cinema, with limited opportunities for meaningful and diverse portrayals.
However, African American filmmakers and artists have played a crucial role in challenging these limitations, telling their stories, and advocating for greater representation and inclusivity in cinema.

Question 93

________ (1884-1951) was an African American filmmaker and author who became a significant figure in early African American cinema. He was one of the first African American directors to produce and distribute films independently, creating a substantial body of work during the early 20th century. Micheaux’s films addressed social issues and explored the experiences of African Americans, often challenging racial stereotypes prevalent in mainstream cinema. His films, such as “Within Our Gates” (1920) and “Body and Soul” (1925), provided a platform for authentic representation and gave a voice to African American stories and perspectives.

Answer 93

Oscar Micheaux

Question 94

Black cinema refers to films made by Black filmmakers that explore the experiences, culture, and perspectives of African Americans and the African diaspora. It is characterized by the following:

Answer 94

Authentic Representation: Black cinema aims to provide authentic and diverse portrayals of African American life, challenging stereotypes and offering nuanced depictions of Black characters.

Social and Political Commentary: Black cinema often addresses social issues such as racism, inequality, and discrimination, providing commentary on the African American experience and broader societal challenges.

Cultural Celebration: Black cinema celebrates African American culture, traditions, and history, highlighting the richness and contributions of Black communities.

Identity and Self-Exploration: Black cinema explores themes of identity, self-discovery, and the search for belonging, examining the complexities of individual and collective Black experiences.

Empowerment and Resilience: Black cinema often emphasizes themes of empowerment, resilience, and resistance, showcasing stories of overcoming adversity and triumphing against societal obstacles.

Question 95

Film genres are categories or classifications that group films based on their similarities in terms of (3)

Answer 95

Narrative, themes, and stylistic elemetns.

Question 96

____ are the traditional or expected elements or techniques within a particular genre

Answer 96

Conventions

Question 97

_____ are recurring narrative, thematic, or visual elements that are commonly associated with a particular genre

Answer 97

Tropes

Question 98

____ are specific categories within a broader genre

Answer 98

Subgenres

Question 99

_______ is the blending or mixing of different genres or elements from multiple genres

Answer 99

Hybridization

Question 100

____, _____, and ____ influences and factors shape and impact films and their genres.

Answer 100

Social, cultural and historical influences.

Question 101

Some film genres have their roots in literary genres such as, __, __, or ___.

Answer 101

Science fiction, crime fiction, romance.

Question 102

By knowing a particular genre you can often anticipate certain…. ___, ____, ____ associated with it.

Answer 102

Themes, character types, visual styles.

Question 103

Film Noir emerges in what era? Reflecting what?

Answer 103

Post-WW11. Reflecting disillusionment and anxieties of the time.

Question 104

Sound in cinema emphasizing the importance of sound in shaping our __________ and how it provides _____ for our perception

Answer 104

understanding of our world, and how it provides meaningful context for our perception

Question 105

J-cuts

Answer 105

Bringing up the audio before we cut to it on screen = anticipation

Question 106

L- Cuts

Answer 106

continuing the audio of the pervious shot into the first few seconds of the next

Question 107

Soundscape is:

Answer 107

the overall auditory environment or atmosphere created by the combination of various sounds in a particular setting or scene.

Question 108

____ is dialogue that is recorded and aligned with the corresponding visual image in a film, allowing the characters speech to be heard.

Answer 108

Synchronized Dialogue

Question 109

_____ is the art and technique of capturing moving images on film or digital media. In the context of sound, it refers to how sound and image work together to shape the audiences perception.

Answer 109

Cinematography

Question 110

__ design is the process of planning and creating the overall soundscape of a motion picture. This includes the selection and arrangement of _____, ______, ___, and other auditory elements.

Answer 110

Sound design.
Sound effects, music, dialogue

Question 111

_____ is the sound recorded on set during the filming of a scene, capturing dialogue, ambient soundsm and other live audio.

Answer 111

Production sound

Question 112

_____ is the specialist responsible for recording clean sound on set during production and making the various audio sources in real-time.

Answer 112

Location sound recordist
Location sound mixer

Question 113

___ is a member of the sound department who operates a boom pole, holding a microphone to capture dialogue from actors while staying out of the cameras frame.

Answer 113

Boom operator

Question 114

______ is a device used to capture sound waves and convert them into an electrical signal.

what are the different types? (4)

Answer 114

Microphone

1) omni-directional
2) directional
3) cardioid
4) shotgun

Question 115

_________ is the practice of recording sound separate from the image during production, allowing for more control and flexibility in post-production.

Answer 115

Dual-system recording

Question 116

______ is the underlying ambient sound of a particular location or environment recorded during production and used to fill gaps and match the sound floor in post-production.

Answer 116

Room tone

Question 117

_____ is the process of re-recording dialogue in a studio setting to replace or enhance dialogue that was poorly recorded on set.

Answer 117

ADR (Automated Dialogue Replacement/Looping)

Question 118

______ is a specialist who creates and records various everyday sounds (clothing rustling, footsteps, object interactions)

Answer 118

Foley Artist

Question 119

Sound editing is…

Answer 119

The process of selecting, arranging and manipulating audio elements (dialogue sound effects, music) during post-production to create the desired sound design and continuity.

Question 120

A sound bridge is a technique used in editing to…

Answer 120

Overlap or extend audio from one shot into the next, creating a smooth transition between scenes.

Question 121

__/__ is a device used to mark the beginning of each take during filming, providing visual and audio cues for synchronization in post-production.

Answer 121

Slate/clapper

Question 122

___ control every aspect of sound in the cinematic experience.

Answer 122

Sound editors

Question 123

Continuity in sound means creating ________ keeping the audience ______ in the ______.

Answer 123

creating a narrative flow, engaged in the narrative

Question 124

_______ is created with _________ sounds that seem related to what are on screen but are otherwise out of sync (audio)

Answer 124

Discontinuity is created with asynchronous sounds

Question 125

what is an example of hitchcocks asynchronous sound?

Answer 125

Woman finds dead body in train compartment door, instead of hearing her scream we hear a train whistle. In this case. Asynchronous sound with a J cut.

Question 126

An element of sound that many film makers neglect is the use of ________.

Answer 126

Silence

Question 127

_______ accompaniment most of the theatrical experience in the silent era.

Answer 127

Musical

Question 128

When did the talkies start?

Answer 128

1927 (synchronization of sound)

Question 129

Diegetic Sound is…

Answer 129

Music and sound heard by characters on the screen

Question 130

Non-diegetic Sound is..

Answer 130

Only the audience can hear it

Question 131

What is the score

Answer 131

Score– music by composer– original composition written and recorded for a specific motion picture. – always non-diegetic, just for the audience. (most successful mirror the action or tell us how to feel)–

can serve as a theme or motif

Question 132

Cinematic elements; _____, ______, ______, ______, ______, ______.

Answer 132

Camera angles, shots, style, sound, lighting, editing.

Question 133

Theatrical elements: ______, ______, _______, _______.

Answer 133

Costumes, props, set design, acting choices.

Question 134

In terms of a screenplay what is the Scene heading for?

Answer 134

A one line description of the location and time of day of the scene.

Question 135

In terms of a screenplay what is the Transition for?

Answer 135

Used to call out how one scene might transition to the next

Question 136

In terms of a screenplay what is the Character stamp for?

Answer 136

Always indented to the center and ALL CAPS before their diologue.

Question 137

In terms of a screenplay what is the Action for?

Answer 137

A description of the events of the scene

Question 138

In terms of a screenplay what is the Dialogue for?

Answer 138

Always indented to the center

Question 139

In terms of a screenplay what is the Parenthetical for?

Answer 139

Action or attitude direction for the character ()

Question 140

What are the elements of a screenplay

Answer 140

scene heading
transition
action
character
dialogue
paranthetical

Question 141

What is the protagonist?

Answer 141

The main character or central figure in a story.

Role: Often portrayed as the hero or the character who faces the main conflict or challenge in the plot.
Audience/reader perspective: Typically the character the audience identifies with and supports.
Noteworthy characteristics: Drives the narrative forward, undergoes growth and experiences.

Question 142

What is the antagonist?

Answer 142

Definition: The character or force that opposes the protagonist.

Role: Creates obstacles, conflicts, or challenges for the protagonist to overcome.
Forms: Can take various forms, such as individuals, groups, societies, or internal struggles.
Audience/reader perspective: Often seen as the character to be overcome or defeated.

Question 143

Act 1 (setup) usually includes..

Answer 143

Introduction: Introduces the main characters, the setting, and the initial situation.

Inciting Incident: The event or situation that disrupts the protagonist’s ordinary world and sets the main conflict in motion.

Establishing Goals: The protagonist’s goals and motivations are established.
Rising Action: The protagonist encounters obstacles, faces challenges, and starts their journey.

Question 144

Act 2 (confrontation) usually includes..

Answer 144

Rising Tension: The conflict intensifies, and the protagonist faces greater challenges and setbacks.
Midpoint: A significant turning point or revelation that changes the direction of the story.

Complications: The protagonist encounters more obstacles, faces conflicts, and undergoes further character development.

Climax: The highest point of tension, where the protagonist confronts the main conflict head-on.

Question 145

Act 3 (resolution) usually includes..

Answer 145

Falling Action: The tension decreases, and the story moves towards its conclusion.

Resolution: The main conflict is resolved, and loose ends are tied up.

Denouement: The aftermath of the resolution, where the consequences of the story’s events are explored.

Conclusion: The story comes to a satisfying or thought-provoking end.

Question 146

What makes a compelling character?

Answer 146

Complexity (round) not flat

Question 147

What is an antihero?

Answer 147

Un-sympathetic hero pursuing an immoral goal. Somehow we end up rooting for them anyway.

Question 148

What is the antagonists role?

Answer 148

Try and stop the hero from reaching their goal.

Question 149

The primary narrator is always ________.

Answer 149

The camera

Question 150

What is restricted narration?

Answer 150

Stories that never leave the protagonist, restricting our access to any other character unless they are in the same space as our hero.

Question 151

What is omniscient narration?

Answer 151

Can follow any character, even minor ones.

Question 152

What is the underlying idea that activates the plot, defines the characters, and leads us to a satisfying solution.

Answer 152

Narrative intent

Question 153

Narrative conventions are..

Answer 153

characters, settings, themes, musical scores

Question 154

Genres are grouped by their _____.

Answer 154

Conventions

Question 155

What is Histoire?

Answer 155

“story time” or discourse time

the time that it takes to tel those events

Question 156

What is the story?

Answer 156

Definition: The overall narrative or sequence of events that make up the content and message of a work.
Focus: Emphasizes the essence and core elements of the narrative, including characters, themes, and the emotional or thematic journey.

Elements: Includes the broader context, character development, thematic exploration, and the underlying message or meaning conveyed by the narrative.

Example: The story of a film could be about love, redemption, or the pursuit of a dream.

Question 157

What is the plot?

Answer 157

Definition: The specific sequence and arrangement of events that unfold in a story.

Focus: Emphasizes the structure, causality, and progression of events.
Elements: Includes the chronological order of events, the cause-and-effect relationships, and the twists, turns, and conflicts that occur.

Example: The plot of a film could involve a series of events where a protagonist falls in love, faces obstacles in pursuing their love interest, and ultimately overcomes those obstacles to find happiness.

Question 158

What is the difference between story and plot?

Answer 158

The story is the broader, more abstract concept that encompasses the overall narrative and its themes, while the plot is the specific arrangement and sequence of events that unfold within the story.

Question 159

What is in-media-res

Answer 159

Definition: Latin phrase meaning “in the midst of things.”
Narrative Technique: Story begins in the middle of the action or at a point that is not the chronological beginning.
Purpose: Immediately engages the audience and creates intrigue.

Approach: Jumps into a significant event or conflict.

Additional Information: Background details are gradually revealed through flashbacks or other narrative devices.
Using the “in medias res” technique, the story starts with action or conflict, providing an immediate hook for the audience. Background information is then revealed through flashbacks or other means, allowing the audience to piece together the events leading up to the starting point.

Question 160

What does a voiceover do

Answer 160

Definition: Technique where a character’s voice is heard over the visuals on the screen.

Functions:
Narration and Exposition
Character Insight and Perspective
Commentary and Reflection
Stylistic Device
Continuity and Time Jumps
Engagement and Connection

Purpose: Enhances storytelling, provides information, adds depth, and creates a connection with the audience.
Voiceover in film serves as narration, offers character insights, provides commentary, enhances the film’s style, bridges continuity gaps, and engages the audience on an emotional level.

Question 161

What are masterplots

Answer 161

Definition: Recurring patterns or templates representing fundamental plot structures or themes in storytelling.
Introduced by: Christopher Booker in his book “The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories.”

Identified Masterplots:
Overcoming the Monster
Rags to Riches
The Quest
Voyage and Return
Comedy
Tragedy
Rebirth

Masterplots are common narrative archetypes found in literature and storytelling that include themes of overcoming challenges, personal growth, quests, humor, tragedy, and transformation.

Question 162

What are propps functions

Answer 162

Definition: A set of narrative functions or roles identified by Vladimir Propp, a Russian folklorist.

Purpose: Analyze the structure and elements of fairy tales and folktales.

Identified Functions:
Hero or protagonist
Villain or antagonist
Donor or provider of magical assistance
Helper or supporter of the hero
Princess or sought-for person/object
False hero or deceptive character
Dispatcher or character who sends the hero on a quest
Interdiction or prohibition given to the hero
Violation or transgression of the interdiction
Reconnaissance or information gathering
Delivery or transfer of an object
Struggle or conflict between characters
Branding or marking of a character
Victory or successful resolution
Wedding or happy ending

Propp’s functions are used to analyze the roles and structure of fairy tales and folktales, providing insight into recurring elements and narrative patterns.

Question 163

What are propps 7 roles:

Answer 163

Definition: Character functions identified by Vladimir Propp in his structural analysis of fairy tales.
Purpose: Analyze the roles and narrative progression within fairy tales.
Identified Roles:
Hero: The main character who embarks on a quest or journey.
Villain: The antagonist or source of conflict opposing the hero.
Donor: A character who provides assistance or magical items to aid the hero.
Helper: A character who supports or aids the hero throughout their journey.
Princess or sought-for person/object: The character or object that the hero seeks or desires.
False hero: A deceptive character who initially appears to be the hero but is eventually revealed as a villain or fraud.
Dispatcher: A character who sends the hero on their quest or initiates the main conflict.
Propp’s analysis of fairy tales focuses on these seven roles and their interplay within the narrative structure.

Question 164

What is a scene?

Answer 164

Sequence of events in a location or time

Question 165

What is a cut?

Answer 165

A connection between 2 pieces of time

Can be invisible or draw attention to itself.

Question 166

What is IMR?

Answer 166

Explanation:
(In-media-res)

Creates a homogenous story world

IMR is a narrative technique where a story begins in the middle of the action or a critical moment, rather than starting from the beginning.
It grabs the audience’s attention by immediately immersing them into a compelling and engaging scene or situation.
By starting the story in media res, filmmakers aim to create a sense of intrigue, suspense, and curiosity, enticing the audience to continue watching to find out what led to that point and what will happen next.
This technique often involves later utilizing flashbacks or other narrative devices to fill in the backstory and provide context for the initial scene.

Question 167

What is the classical narrative structure?

Answer 167

The classical narrative structure is a commonly used storytelling framework in film.
It follows a three-act structure consisting of the beginning, middle, and end, which can be characterized by equilibrium, disequilibrium, and resolution of the enigma.
Beginning (Equilibrium):
The film introduces the main characters, setting, and the established order of their world.
The equilibrium represents a state of balance and normalcy.
It establishes the protagonist’s situation, goals, and the context for the story.
Middle (Disequilibrium):
A disruptive event or conflict arises, challenging the equilibrium established in the beginning.
The middle section of the film presents obstacles, complications, and rising tensions for the protagonist.
The main character faces challenges, undergoes character development, and encounters conflicts that push the story forward.
The narrative tension escalates, leading to a climax or turning point.
End (Return to Equilibrium through Resolution of the Enigma):
The conflicts and challenges presented in the middle section are resolved or addressed.
The protagonist finds a resolution, often by resolving the enigma or mystery that drives the story.
The film returns to a state of equilibrium, though it may not be the same as the beginning.
Loose ends are tied up, and the story reaches a conclusion, providing closure to the narrative arc.
Benefits of Classical Narrative Structure:

Offers a clear and familiar storytelling framework.
Provides a sense of progression and development throughout the film.
Creates tension and engagement by disrupting the initial equilibrium.
Allows for character growth and exploration of themes.
Offers a satisfying resolution to the conflicts and enigmas presented.

Question 168

Shot

Answer 168

A continuous sequence of film that is captured by the camera without any cuts or edits

Question 169

Editing

Answer 169

Process of selecting and combining individual shots to create a finished film

Question 170

Montage

Answer 170

A type of editing where shots are combines to create a specific effect or meaning that is different from the individual shots.

Question 171

Formalism

Answer 171

A style of filmmaking that emphasizes visual style and formal elements like composition, lighting, and editing, often with a focus on abstract or symbolic meaning.

Question 172

Realism

Answer 172

A style of filmmaking that aims to represent the world in a realistic and naturalistic way, often with an emphasis on social issues or the experiences of everyday people.

Question 173

Aerial shot

Answer 173

A shot taken from a high angle, usually from a crane or helicopter

Question 174

Diegetic sound

Answer 174

Sound that originates from within the world of the film, such as dialogue, music from a radio, or sound effects.

Question 175

Non-diegetic sound

Answer 175

Sound that does not originate from within the world of film, such as a musical score or voice-over narration.

Question 176

Tracking shot

Answer 176

A shot that follows the movement of the subject, often achieved by moving the camera on a track or dolly.

Question 177

Voice-over

Answer 177

Narration or dialogue that is heard over the action onscreen, often used to provide exposition or inner thoughts of a character.

Question 178

Aspect ratio

Answer 178

Proportion of the width to the heigh of the image onscreen, often represented as a ratio ex. (16:9 or 4:3)

Question 179

Ellipsis

Answer 179

A gap in the narrative timeline that skips over a period of time, often signified by a jump cut

Question 180

Zoom

Answer 180

A camera movement that changes the focal length of the lens to make the subject appear closer or further away, without physically moving the camera.

Question 181

What does mise-en-scene entail?

Answer 181

Lighting
Characters
Props
Composition
Camera
Costuming/Makeup

Question 182

What do we remember about sound (2)?

Answer 182

We often accept it without us knowing.
Absence makes the heart grow fonder

Question 183

What do visual and auditory senses do?

Answer 183

Shape, direct and cues the audience

Question 184

What types of film sound are there (5)?

Answer 184

Speech
Music
Sound effects
Diegetic and Non-Diegetic sound

Question 185

What is it called when we think we have non-diegetic sound but it happens to be diegetic?

Answer 185

Trans-diegetic sound

Question 186

Properties of sound (3)?

Answer 186

Loudness
Pitch
Timbre

Question 187

What is the difference between asynchronous sound and synchronous?

Answer 187

Asynchronous, beats are off of the action, sound is at odds, creates anxiety.

Synchronous, does

Question 188

What does Film Noir mean? And what is it?

Answer 188

“Black film”

Definition: Film Noir is a cinematic genre that emerged primarily in the 1940s and 1950s, characterized by its dark, stylized visuals, morally ambiguous characters, and a pessimistic view of human nature.

Explanation:

Film Noir is a French term meaning “black film” or “dark film.”
It is often associated with crime dramas and detective stories, but the genre encompasses a range of themes and settings.

Film Noir is known for its distinctive visual style, featuring low-key lighting, chiaroscuro lighting techniques, and atmospheric shadows.
The stories are often set in urban environments, portraying a gritty and corrupt world.

The genre frequently explores themes of crime, betrayal, femme fatales, moral ambiguity, and existentialism.
The narratives often unfold through nonlinear storytelling, flashbacks, voice-over narration, and a sense of fatalism.

Moral ambiguity and ethical dilemmas.
Crime, corruption, and the underworld.
Femme fatales and complex, flawed characters.
Existentialism, disillusionment, and a bleak view of human nature.
Paranoia, alienation, and a sense of impending doom.
Narrative Techniques:

Nonlinear storytelling, often using flashbacks.
Voice-over narration to provide subjective perspectives.
Hard-boiled detective protagonists navigating through a web of deception.
Symbolism and metaphorical storytelling.

Question 189

Film noir visual style:

Answer 189

Visual Style:

Stark contrast between light and shadow (chiaroscuro lighting).
Utilization of low-key lighting to create a sense of mystery and tension.
Expressionistic and atmospheric cinematography.
Themes and Atmosphere:

Question 190

What is a take?

Answer 190

Every time you repeat a shot

Question 191

Basic properties of light: (4)

Answer 191

Source, Quality, Direction and Colour

Question 192

2 Basic distinctions in terms of origin:

Answer 192

Natural or Artificial

Question 193

What is hard light?

Answer 193

Intense and focused
= harsh dramatic shadows

Question 194

What is soft light?

Answer 194

More diffused and even
= smooth gradual transitions from light to dark.

Question 195

The main source of illumination in lighting is called the…

Answer 195

Key light

Question 196

A key light is..

Answer 196

Usually the brightest light on set, used to properly expose the main subject.

Question 197

What does a fill light do?

Answer 197

A bit softer, fills the harsh shadows from the key light.

Question 198

What is a backlight?

Answer 198

A.K.A. a hair light. Usually on the back of someones head. Creates some separation between the subject and the background.

Question 199

The brightness of the key light, fill light, and back light is known as….

Answer 199

The lighting ratio.
It can be adjusted for various different effects.

Question 200

Key light, fill light and backlight usage are known as…

Answer 200

3 point lighting.

Question 201

The ______ on a camera determines the clarity, framing, depth of field, and exposure of the image.

Answer 201

Lens

Question 202

Focal length is…

Answer 202

the overall distance between the sensor and the point at which the light passes through the glass elements

Question 203

Focal length is measured in …

Answer 203

mm
Ex. 50mm lens

Question 204

Focal length determines both the _____ and the ______ of the image.

Answer 204

Angle of view, and the magnification of the image.

The shorter the focal length, the wider the angle of view and the smaller the magnification.

Question 205

Lenses can be divided into 2 basic types based on how they treat focal length… what are they?

Answer 205

Zoom and Prime

Question 206

What is the depth of field?

Answer 206

The range of distance in front of the camera in which subjects are in sharp focus.

Question 207

ex. A man is lighting a cigarette isolated from the background, focussing our attention on the spark from the lighter, this is an example of ___ depth of field.

Answer 207

Narrow.

The range of distance infront of the camera in which subjects are in deep focus is relatively small, creating less depth to the image.

Question 208

ex. Everything seems to be equally in focus, allowing us to pick out all of the details of the set design. This is an example of a _____ depth of field or _____ focus.

Answer 208

Wide depth of field
Deep focus

Question 209

Composition is…
and does…

Answer 209

The arrangement of people, objects and setting within the frame of an image.

how they are arranged within the border of the image can bring balance or imbalance, reveal or hide info, and indicate power or weakness, all without a word of dialogue, an edit, or even a character on screen.

Question 210

One way to achieve balance in a frame is…

Answer 210

rule of thirds

Question 211

A close-up creates

Answer 211

A sense of intimacy with the subject

Question 212

When the subject appears far away it is an example of ……________ shot.

Answer 212

An extreme long shot

Question 213

Other types of shots

Answer 213

Extreme closeup, medium closeup, medium shot, medium long, long etc.

Question 214

A medium long shot will typically show…

Answer 214

The character from the knees up.

Question 215

A medium shot will typically show…

Answer 215

The character from the waist up.

Question 216

What type of shot could make the viewer feel uneasy or off balance (2)?

Answer 216

Asymmetrical/unbalanced

Question 217

When a main subject is isolated and small relative to the rest of the frame, it creates what in the rest of the frame?

What does it convey?

Answer 217

Negative space.

Isolation/Powerlessness.

Question 218

A tilt is..

Answer 218

Simply moving the camera up or down from a fixed point, usually a tripod.

Question 219

A pan is..

Answer 219

Simply rotating the camera from side to side from a fixed point.

Question 220

A dolly shot is..

Answer 220

A shot that moves on wheels
Often smoother

Question 221

A tracking shot is..

Answer 221

One that moves along with the subject in motion (and may or may not have actual tracks)

Question 222

A long take is..

Answer 222

Moving through several different setting without ever needing to cut away from the shot.

Question 223

What is exposure?

Answer 223

Cinematographers must carefully control the exposure of film or image sensors to achieve the desired brightness or contrast. This involves adjusting the aperture, shutter speed, and ISO sensitivity.

Question 224

Framing and composition techniques can include… (5)

Answer 224

Leading lines
Symmetry
Asymmetry
Framing within a frame
Rule of thirds

Question 225

Continuity can include (3)

Answer 225

Maintaining consistent lighting, camera angles, and framing choices

Creates a seamless visual narrative

Question 226

Camera stabilization tools

Answer 226

Seadicam rigs
Dollies
Gimbals

Question 227

Colour grading includes adjusting…. (4)
and does what?

Answer 227

Colour levels, contrast, saturation, specific colour palettes.

Creates visual tone and mood

Question 228

French New Wave

Answer 228

Definition: French New Wave refers to a significant movement in French cinema during the late 1950s and early 1960s, characterized by its innovative and unconventional approach to filmmaking, challenging traditional narrative and stylistic conventions.

Explanation:

French New Wave, also known as Nouvelle Vague in French, emerged as a response to the established French film industry, which was seen as stagnant and formulaic.
The movement was led by a group of young, passionate filmmakers, including François Truffaut, Jean-Luc Godard, and Éric Rohmer, who sought to bring a fresh perspective to filmmaking.
Characteristics of French New Wave:

Aesthetic and Stylistic Innovations:

Embraced natural lighting and location shooting, often with handheld cameras, giving a documentary-like feel.
Utilized jump cuts, discontinuous editing, and non-linear storytelling techniques to challenge traditional narrative structures.
Experimented with long takes and tracking shots to create a sense of immediacy and realism.
Narrative and Themes:

Explored existential themes, personal introspection, and the complexities of human relationships.
Focused on everyday life, ordinary characters, and their internal struggles.
Often rejected traditional plot structures and favored a more fragmented, episodic narrative approach.
Addressed social issues, political commentary, and cultural shifts of the time.
Self-Reflexivity and Intertextuality:

Frequently referenced and paid homage to classic Hollywood cinema and other art forms.
Metafictional elements and breaking the fourth wall were common techniques.
Engaged in self-reflection about the medium of film itself, its conventions, and its relationship with reality.
Filmmaker Auterism:

Celebrated the filmmaker as an author with a distinct personal vision.
Directors infused their works with their own experiences, perspectives, and artistic signatures.
Emphasized individual expression and rejected the notion of commercial cinema.
Notable French New Wave Films:

“The 400 Blows” (1959) directed by François Truffaut.
“Breathless” (1960) directed by Jean-Luc Godard.
“Jules and Jim” (1962) directed by François Truffaut.
“Cleo from 5 to 7” (1962) directed by Agnès Varda.
“Last Year at Marienbad” (1961) directed by Alain Resnais.
Impact and Legacy:

The French New Wave revolutionized filmmaking techniques, influencing subsequent generations of filmmakers worldwide.
Its emphasis on personal expression, experimentation, and breaking conventional norms paved the way for independent and art-house cinema.
The movement remains an essential part of film history, celebrated for its bold creativity and challenging of cinematic conventions.

Question 229

Black and White film does what?

Answer 229

Explanation:

Black and white cinematography refers to the absence of color, where films are shot and presented solely in shades of gray.
Black and white has been used throughout the history of cinema, and its inclusion or exclusion can significantly impact the visual experience and storytelling.
Effects of Black and White:

Timelessness:

Black and white imagery can evoke a sense of timelessness, distancing the film from a specific era or period.
It allows the story to resonate with viewers across different time periods, fostering a timeless quality.
Aesthetic Appeal:

Black and white cinematography can create a visually striking and dramatic aesthetic.
It emphasizes contrasts, textures, and shapes, enhancing the overall composition of the frame.
The absence of color can intensify the impact of light and shadow, adding depth and mood to the visuals.
Focus on Story and Emotions:

The absence of color can direct the audience’s attention towards the narrative and emotional aspects of the film.
It reduces distractions and forces viewers to engage with the characters, performances, and storytelling elements on a deeper level.
Symbolism and Atmosphere:

Black and white can be used symbolically, representing contrasts, moral ambiguity, or psychological states.
It can enhance the atmosphere, accentuating the tension, nostalgia, or a sense of darkness and mystery.
Nostalgia and Artistic Expression:

Black and white cinematography can evoke a sense of nostalgia, harking back to the early days of cinema.
Filmmakers often choose black and white to create a specific artistic expression, paying homage to classic filmmaking or capturing a specific mood or tone.
Note: While color films dominate the contemporary cinematic landscape, black and white continues to be utilized intentionally to serve various artistic and storytelling purposes.

Question 230

Differences between story and plot?

Answer 230

In narrative terms, story and plot refer to distinct but interconnected elements that contribute to the overall structure and development of a work.
Story:

The story is the broader narrative concept, encompassing the underlying events, characters, and their motivations.
It represents the essence of what the narrative is about, focusing on the central theme, message, or ideas conveyed.
The story often follows a linear chronology and provides the foundation for the plot to unfold.
Plot:

The plot refers to the specific sequence of events that occur within a narrative, encompassing the actions, conflicts, and resolutions experienced by the characters.
It involves the arrangement and structuring of these events, presenting them in a deliberate and meaningful manner.
The plot is concerned with the cause-and-effect relationships, pacing, and development of the narrative.
Key Differences:

Scope: The story is the overall concept or idea behind the narrative, while the plot deals with the specific events and their sequencing.

Focus: The story emphasizes the themes, messages, and character motivations, while the plot focuses on the sequence of events and their progression.

Chronology: The story can encompass the entire timeline, including backstory and future implications, while the plot typically follows a linear or non-linear sequence of events.

Structure: The story provides the foundation and context for the plot, while the plot determines the narrative structure and pacing.

Subjectivity: The story tends to be more subjective, open to interpretation and exploration of deeper meaning, while the plot is often more objective and concerned with the concrete events and their presentation.

It’s important to note that the terms “story” and “plot” are sometimes used interchangeably in casual conversation, and their specific usage can vary depending on the context and interpretation of the work.

Question 231

Mis-en-scene includes

Answer 231

Settings
Props
Composition and dominance
Characters
Costuming and Makeup
Lighting
Camera Placement

BE SPECIFIC

Question 232

Elements of a screenplay

Answer 232

Character name
Diologue
Scene setting
Action
Transition
Cuts?

Question 233

Early cinema years

Answer 233

1893-1903
Start between documenting and storytelling

Question 234

German Expressionism years

Answer 234

1919-1924
In between ww1-ww2
Silent film Era
Likely live music with theatre
Dialogue represented as intertitles
Characters often chosen for what they look like
Designers highly paid compared to directors and actors
Often industrialization focus.

Question 235

Soviet Montage years

Answer 235

1924-1930

Sound is just coming to film
Some are not
1917 Russian Revolution
Limitations= access to film
Film is created through editing
Eisenstein created storytelling through selective editing and montage.
— when we put two shots together each ones inform eachother– the order helps create the meaning of the frilm

Question 236

Italian Neorealism years

Answer 236

1942-1951

WW11 Mussolini created film
Post war period– reactionary moment to make film that tells stories that move beyond the constrains

FILM THAT PORTRAYS REAL LIFE
Documentary look

Question 237

Neo-realism

Answer 237

Grainy stocks
Tight editing– “cut tight” between scenes without appearing jumpy.
Takes out unnecessary pauses between actors’ dialogue– well placed cutaway scenes
Losing redundant lines of dialogue
Audio recorded seperately

Question 238

What was the Golden Age of Hollywoods shooting ratio?

Answer 238

10:1

Question 239

What is “footage”

Answer 239

Recorded moving image

Question 240

Where did editing start?

Answer 240

Russia

Question 241

What is the Kuleshov Effect?

Answer 241

How we derive meaning from the juxtaposing shots – rather from a single shot in isolation.

Question 242

What is Soviet Montage

Answer 242

(Emotional and psychological approach)
Montage= “assembly” “editing”
= complexities of meaning

Question 243

Who was one of the earliest proponents of the Soviet Montage?

Answer 243

Sergei Eisenstein
Student of Kuleshov

Does not make sense all of the time in logical narrative. Creates an emotional effect instead.

ex. Odessa Steps. Juxtaposing images of innocence, repeating images and shots, lingering on some images and flashing to others.

Juxtaposition= feeling.

Question 244

What are ways to manipulate time and space in editing?

Answer 244

Ellipsis
Rhythm (cutting)

Question 245

How long it takes to register visual information=

Answer 245

Content curve.

Question 246

_______ or ________ is about creating a continuous flow of images and sound, a linear, logical progression, shot to shot and scene to scene, constantly orienting the viewer in space and time and carrying them through the narrative. WITHOUT MAKING IT OBVIOUS OR INTRUSIVE

Answer 246

Continuity editing/Invisible editing

Question 247

Continuity/Invisible editing involve some of these techniques

Answer 247

Cutting on action
Match Cuts
Transitions
Screendirection
Master shot and coverage
180 degree rule

Question 248

Cutting on action is…

Answer 248

End one shot in the middle of the action, the start of the next in the middle of the same action. The edit disappears as we track the movement of the character.

Can jump to two different locations even

Question 249

Match cuts are..

Answer 249

Matching some visual element between two contiguous shots including

-eyeline match cuts
-graphic match cuts
-subject match cuts

not usually done with hard cuts but…

TRANSITIONS

Question 250

Eyeline match cuts are..

Answer 250

cute from shot of a character looking off camera to a shot of whatever it is that they are looking at

Question 251

Graphic match buts

Answer 251

Cuts between two images that look similar

Question 252

Subject match cut

Answer 252

cut between two similar ideas or concepts

Question 253

Transitions include

Answer 253

Fade ins (
Fade outs (falling out of conciousness)
Long dissolves (one moment fades into the next)

No relation to the way we see:
Wipes
Iris Outs

Question 254

A master shot is..

Answer 254

Long shot—-
Covers MOST or ALL of the action in the scene

Can be mobile or static

Can double as wide shot

Includes all action and actors in one frame

Then,… they film COVERAGE
“covering that scene” from multiple angles, isolating chatacters, moving closer,

Question 255

180 degree rule

Answer 255

2 characters- draw a line to connect them
Keep all camera movement on one side of that line

Camera does not jump the line or it would be like they are no longer looking at eachother= proper screen direction

Pair it with the original establishing line
=consistent sight line

Disoriented and lost feeling if broken

Question 256

What do you need to do if breaking the 180 degree rule

Answer 256

Show a new master shot

Question 257

What does an editor do when there is more than one narrative playing out at the same time? how do you show both and maintain continuity?

Answer 257

Cross-cutting is a solution
AKA parallel editing
=

Cutting back and fourth between two or more narratives.

Question 258

What can discontinuity editing help do?

Answer 258

Dramatasize a fractured mind of the character, comment on the act of watching a film itself. (WHERE ARE WE? WHATS GOING ON?)

Question 259

Trick for discontinuity editing?

Answer 259

Jump cuts

Question 260

– what is DIEGESIS? NO JUST SOUND

Answer 260

The diegesis includes objects, events, spaces and the characters that inhabit them, including things, actions, and attitudes not explicitly presented in the film but inferred by the audience. That audience constructs a diegetic world from the material presented in a narrative film. Some films make it impossible to construct a coherent diegetic world, for example Last Year at Marienbad (L’année dernière à Marienbad, Alan Resnais, 1961) or even contain no diegesis at all but deal only with the formal properties of film, for instance Mothlight (Stan Brakhage, 1963). The “diegetic world” of the documentary is usually taken to be simply the world, but some drama documentaries test that assumption such as Land Without Bread (Las Hurdes, Luis Buñuel, 1932).

Different media have different forms of diegesis. Henry V (Lawrence Olivier, England, 1944) starts with a long crane shot across a detailed model landscape of 16th century London. Over the course of its narrative, the film shifts its diegetic register from the presentational form of the Elizabethan theater to the representational form of mainstream narrative cinema.

Question 261

– what is an AUTEUR

Question 262

– EDITING

Answer 262

The joining together of clips of film into a single filmstrip. The cut is a simple edit but there are many other possible ways to transition from one shot to another. See the section on editing.

Question 263

– FLASHBACK FLASHFORWARD

Answer 263

A jump backwards or forwards in diegetic time. With the use of flashback / flashforward the order of events in the plot no longer matches the order of events in the story. Citizen Kane (Orson Welles, 1941) is a famous film composed almost entirely of flashbacks and flashforwards. The film timeline spans over 60 years, as it traces the life of Charles Foster Kane from his childhood to his deathbed — and on into the repercussions of his actions on the people around him. Some characters appear at several time periods in the film, usually being interviewed in the present and appearing in the past as they tell the reporter of their memories of Kane. Joseph Cotten, who plays Kane’s best friend, is shown here as an old man in a rest home (with the help of some heavy make-up) and as a young man working with Kane in his newspaper.

Question 264

– FOCUS

Answer 264

Focus refers to the degree to which light rays coming from any particular part of an object pass through the lens and reconverge at the same point on a frame of the film negative, creating sharp outlines and distinct textures that match the original object. This optical property of the cinema creates variations in depth of field — through shallow focus, deep focus, and techniques such as racking focus. Dziga Vertov’s films celebrated the power of cinema to create a “communist decoding of reality”, most overtly in Man with the Movie Camera (Chelovek s kinoapparatom, USSR, 1929).

Question 265

– GENRES

Answer 265

Types of film recognized by audiences and/or producers, sometimes retrospectively. These types are distinguished by narrative or stylistic conventions, or merely by their discursive organization in influential criticism. Genres are made necessary by high volume industrial production, for example in the mainstream cinema of the U.S.A and Japan.

Question 266

– MISE-EN-SCENE

Answer 266

All the things that are “put in the scene”: the setting, the decor, the lighting, the costumes, the performance etc. Narrative films often manipulate the elements of mise-en-scene, such as decor, costume, and acting to intensify or undermine the ostensible significance of a particular scene.

Question 267

– STORY / PLOT

Answer 267

Perhaps more correctly labelled fabula and syuzhet, story refers to all the audience infers about the events that occur in the diegesis on the basis of what they are shown by the plot — the events that are directly presented in the film. The order, duration, and setting of those events, as well as the relation between them, all constitute elements of the plot. Story is always more extensive than plot even in the most straightforward drama but certain genres, such as the film noir and the thriller, manipulate the relationship of story and plot for dramatic purposes. A film such as Memento (Christopher Nolan, 2000) forces its audience to continually reconstruct the story told in a temporally convoluted plot.

Question 268

SCENE / SEQUENCE

Answer 268

A scene is a segment of a narrative film that usually takes place in a single time and place, often with the same characters. Sometimes a single scene may contain two lines of action, occurring in different spaces or even different times, that are related by means of crosscutting. Scene and sequence can usually be used interchangeably, though the latter term can also refer to a longer segment of film that does not obey the spatial and temporal unities of a single scene. For example, a montage sequence that shows in a few shots a process that occurs over a period of time.

Question 269

SHOT

Answer 269

A single stream of images, uninterrupted by editing. The shot can use a static or a mobile framing, a standard or a non-standard frame rate, but it must be continuous. The shot is one of the basic units of cinema yet has always been subject to manipulation, for example stop-motion cinematography or superimposition. In contemporary cinema, with the use of computer graphics and sequences built-up from a series of still frames (eg. The Matrix), the boundaries of the shot are increasingly being challenged.

Question 270

Decor

Answer 270

An important element of “putting in the scene” is décor, the objects contained in and the setting of a scene. Décor can be used to amplify character emotion or the dominant mood of a film. In these shots from 2001: A Space Odyssey(Stanley Kubrick, 1969) the futuristic furniture and reduced color scheme stress the sterility and impersonality of the space station environment. Later, the digital nature of the HAL computer is represented by the repeating patterns and strong geometrical design of the set.

Question 271

Rear Projection

Answer 271

Usually used to combine foreground action, often actors in conversation, with a background often shot earlier, on location. Rear projection provides an economical way to set films in exotic or dangerous locations without having to transport expensive stars or endure demanding conditions. In some films, the relationship between scenes shot on location and scenes shot using rear projection becomes a signifying pattern. In other films, it’s just cheap . . .

Rear projection is featured extensively in Douglas Sirk’s lush melodrama Written On The Wind (1956). Specifically, almost every car ride is shot in this way, a common feature in Classical Hollywood films, due to the physical restrains of shooting in the studio. In addition, by speeding up the rate of the projected images in the background, or quickly changing its angle, rear projection allows for an impression of speed that involves no real danger.

Question 272

Section 2 — Lighting

Answer 272

The intensity, direction, and quality of lighting have a profound effect on the way an image is perceived. Light affects the way colors are rendered, both in terms of hue and depth, and can focus attention on particular elements of the composition. Much like movement in the cinema, the history of lighting technology is intrinsically linked to the history of film style. Most mainstream films rely on the three-point lighting style, and its genre variations. Other films, for example documentaries and realist cinema, rely on natural light to create a sense of authenticity.

Question 273

THREE-POINT LIGHTING MISE EN SCENE

Answer 273

The standard lighting scheme for classical narrative cinema. In order to model an actor’s face (or another object) with a sense of depth, light from three directions is used, as in the diagram below. A backlight picks out the subject from its background, a bright key light highlights the object and a fill light from the opposite side ensures that the key light casts only faint shadows.

Question 274

High key lighting MISE EN SCENE

Answer 274

A lighting scheme in which the fill light is raised to almost the same level as the key light. This produces images that are usually very bright and that feature few shadows on the principal subjects. This bright image is characteristic of entertainment genres such as musicals and comedies such as Peking Opera Blues (Do Ma Daan, Tsui Hark, Honk Kong, 1986).

Question 275

LOW-KEY LIGHTING MISE EN SCENE

Answer 275

A lighting scheme that employs very little fill light, creating strong contrasts between the brightest and darkest parts of an image and often creating strong shadows that obscure parts of the principal subjects. This lighting scheme is often associated with “hard-boiled” or suspense genres such as film noir. Here are some examples from Touch of Evil (Orson Welles, 1958.)

Question 276

SPACE MISE EN SCENE

Answer 276

The representation of space affects the reading of a film. Depth, proximity, size and proportions of the places and objects in a film can be manipulated through camera placement and lenses, lighting, decor, effectively determining mood or relationships between elements in the diegetic world.

Question 277

DEEP SPACE MISE EN SCENE

Answer 277

A film utilizes deep space when significant elements of an image are positioned both near to and distant from the camera. For deep space these objects do not have to be in focus, a defining characteristic of deep focus. Staging in deep space is the opposite of staging in shallow space. Deep space is used throughout many Iranian films such as The Color of Paradise (Rang-e Khoda,1999). Director Majid Majidi likes to integrate the characters into their natural surroundings, to map out the actual distances involved between one location and another in order to emphasize just exactly how hard it is for a particular character (especially children) to move from one place to another.

Question 278

FRONTALITY MISE EN SCENE

Answer 278

Frontality refers to the staging of elements, often human figures, so that they face the camera square-on. This arrangement is an alternative to oblique staging. Frontal staging is usually avoided by the invisible style of continuity editing, since it supposedly breaks the spectator’s illusion of peeking into a separate world, by having characters look directly into the camera as if they were aware of the viewers’ presence. Some films may go even further and have the characters speak to the camera, in what is called a direct address. Accordingly, frontality is often used in films that are more willing to play with, or openly defy, the distance between the screen and the spectator. In this shot from The Stendhal Syndrome (La Sindrome di Stendhal, Italy, 1996) Dario Argento exploits the iconicity of frontal staging in multiple ways.

Question 279

MATTE SHOT MISE EN SCENE

Answer 279

A process shot in which two photographic images (usually background and foreground) are combined into a single image using an optical printer. Matte shots can be used to add elements to a realistic scene or to create fantasy spaces. In these four examples from Vertigo (1958), director Alfred Hitchcock uses all possible combinations. In the first image, the white belfry is a model added on the foreground of a shot of the roof; in the second image, the sky in the background is clearly a painting, with the purpose of making us believe the scene takes place on a bell tower’s top floor, rather than on the studio’s ground.

Question 280

OFFSCREEN SPACE MISE EN SCENE

Answer 280

Space that exists in the diegesis but that is not visible in the frame. Offscreen space becomes significant when the viewer’s attention is called to an event or presence in the diegesis that is not visible in the frame. Offscreen space is commonly exploited for suspense in horror and thriller films, such as The Stendhal Syndrome (La Sindrome di Stendhal, Dario Argento, Italy, 1996).

Question 281

SHALLOW SPACE MISE EN SCENE

Answer 281

The opposite of deep space, in shallow space the image is staged with very little depth. The figures in the image occupy the same or closely positioned planes. While the resulting image loses realistic appeal, its flatness enhances its pictorial qualities. Striking graphic patters can be achieved through shallow space. In these frames from My Neighbor Totoro (Tonari No Totoro, Japan, 1988) Miyazaki fills the entire background with a lamp-eyed, grinning catbus. Shallow space creates ambiguity: is the cat brimming with joy at the sisters’ encounter, or is he about to eat them?

Shallow space can be staged, or it can also be achieved optically, with the use of a telephoto lens.This is particularly useful for creating claustrophic images, since it makes the characters look like they are being crushed against the background.

Question 282

COSTUME MISE EN SCENE

Answer 282

Costume simply refers to the clothes that characters wear. Costume in narrative cinema is used to signify character, or advertise particular fashions, or to make clear distinctions between characters.

Question 283

ACTING MISE EN SCENE

Answer 283

There is enormous historical and cultural variation in performance styles in the cinema. Early melodramatic styles, clearly indebted to the 19th century theater, gave way in Western cinema to a relatively naturalistic style. There are many alternatives to the dominant style: the kabuki-influenced performances of kyu-geki Japanese period films, the use of non-professional actors in Italian neorealism, the typage of silent Soviet Cinema, the improvisatory practices of directors like John Cassavettes or Eric Rohmer, the slapstick comedy of Laurel and Hardy, or the deadpan of Buster Keaton and Jacques Tatí, not to mention the exuberant histrionics of Bollywood films.

Question 284

TYPAGE- MISE EN SCENE

Answer 284

Typage refers to the selection of actors on the basis that their facial or bodily features readily convey the truth of the character the actor plays. Usually associated with the Soviet Montage school, these filmmakers thought that the life-experience of a non-actor guaranteed the authenticity of their performance when they attempted a dramatic role similar to their real social role. Typage is related to the use of stereotype in communicating the essential qualities of a character. Although current casting practices can no longer be described as typage, the use of performers with experience in the role they played is common to most films, whether they rely on the star system, or on non-professional actors. In Pudovkin’s Storm Over Asia (Potomok Chingis-Khana, USSR, 1928), professional and non-professional actors are used alike. The cast was selected not on terms of their skills or reputation, but on their physical resemblance to the following types:

Question 285

CINEMATOGRAPHY – QUALITY

Answer 285

This section explores some of the elements at play in the construction of a shot. As the critics at Cahiers du cinéma maintained, the “how” is as important as the “what” in the cinema. The look of an image, its balance of dark and light, the depth of the space in focus, the relation of background and foreground, etc. all affect the reception of the image. For instance, the optical qualities of grainy black and white in Battle of Algiers (Gillo Pontecorvo, Maarakat madinat al Jazaer, Algeria, 1965) seem to guarantee its authenticity. On the other hand, the shimmering Technicolor of a musical such as Singin’ in the Rain (Stanley Donen, 1952) suggests an out-of-this-world glamor and excitement.

Question 286

CINE- COLOUR

Answer 286

Early films were shot in black and white but the cinema soon included color images. These images were initially painted or stencilled onto the film but by the 1930s filmmakers were able to include color sequences in their films. Apart from the added realism or glamor that a color image could provide, color is also used to create aesthetic patterns and to establish character or emotion in narrative cinema.

In Federico Fellini’s extravagant Juliet of the Spirits (Giulietta degli Spiriti, 1965) colors separate the bourgeois reality and the fantasy daydreamings of the title character, who partyhops between black and white and reds and purples.

Question 287

CINE- CONTRAST

Answer 287

The ratio of dark to light in an image. If the difference between the light and dark areas is large, the image is said to be “high contrast”. If the difference is small, it is referred to as “low contrast” Most films use low contrast to achieve a more naturalistic lighting. High contrast is usually associated with the low key lighting of dark scenes in genres such as the horror film and the film noir. A common cliche is to use contrast between light and dark to distinguish between good and evil. The use of contrast in a scene may draw on racist or sexist connotations.

Question 288

DEEP FOCUS

Answer 288

Like focus. In these two shots from Touch of Evil (Orson Welles, 1958) Besieged (L’Assedio, Bernardo Bertolucci,1998) all of the different planes of the image are given equal importance through deep focus, not only to the characters (like the man peeking at the window in the first image), but also to the spaces (Shanduray’s basement room in the second).

While deep focus may be used occasionally, some auteurs use it consistently for they believe it achieves a truer representation of space. Directors like Jean Renoir, Orson Welles, Hou Hsao-Hsien, or Abbas Kiarostami all use deep focus as an essential part of their signature style.

Question 289

SHALLOW FOCUS

Answer 289

A restricted depth of field, which keeps only one plane in sharp focus; the opposite of deep focus. Used to direct the viewer’s attention to one element of a scene. Shallow focus is very common in close-up, as in these two shots fromCentral Station (Central do Brasil, Walter Selles, Brazil, 1998).

Shallow focus suggests psychological introspection, since a character appears as oblivious to the world around her/him. It is therefore commonly employed in genres such as the melodrama, where the actions and thoughts of an individual prevail over everything else.

Question 290

DEPTH OF FIELD

Answer 290

DEPTH OF FIELD

The distance through which elements in an image are in sharp focus. Bright light and a narrow lens aperture tend to produce a larger depth of field, as does using a wide-angle rather than a long lens. A shallow depth of field is often used as a technique to focus audience attention on the most significant aspect of a scene without having to use an analytic cut-in.

Depth of field is directly connected, but not to be confused, with focus. Focus is the quality (the “sharpness” of an object as it is registered in the image) and depth of field refers to the extent to which the space represented is in focus. For a given lens aperture and level of lighting, the longer the focal distance (the distance between the lens and the object that is in focus) the greater the focal depth. For a given focal distance, the greater the level of lighting or the narrower the aperture, the greater the focal depth. For that reason, close-up shooting and shooting in low light conditions often results in images with very shallow depth of field. An image with shallow depth of field, as this frame fromPeking Opera Blues (Do Ma Daan, Tsui Hark , 1986), has some elements in focus, but others are not.

Question 291

EXPOSURE

Answer 291

A camera lens has an aperture that controls how much light passes through the lens and onto the film. If the aperture is widened, more light comes through and the resultant image will become more exposed. If an image is so pale that the detail begins to disappear, it can be described as “overexposed”. Conversely, a narrow aperture that allows through less light will produce a darker image than normal, known as “underexposed”. Exposure can be manipulated to guide an audience’s response to a scene.

In his film Traffic (2000), Steven Soderbergh decided to shot all of the sequences in the Northern Mexico desert overexposed. The resulting images give an impression of a barren, desolated land being mercilessly burnt by the sun, a no-man’s land over which police and customs have no control.

Question 292

RACKING FOCUS

Answer 292

Racking focus refers to the practice of changing the focus of a lens such that an element in one plane of the image goes out of focus and an element at another plane in the image comes into focus. This technique is an even more overt way of steering audience attention through the scene, as well as of linking two spaces or objects. For instance in this scene from Peking Opera Blues (Do Ma Daan, Tsui Hark, Honk Kong, 1986), a connection is made between an activist in hiding and a police officer who is pursuing him.

Racking focus is usually done quite quickly; in a way, the technique tries to mimick a brief, fleeting glance that can be used to quicken the tempo or increase suspense.

Question 293

RATE

Answer 293

A typical sound film is shot at a frame rate of 24 frames per second. If the number of frames exposed in each second is increased, the action will seem to move more slowly than normal when it is played back. Conversely, the fewer the number of frames exposed each second, the more rapid the resulting action appears to be. The extreme case of frame rate manipulation is stop-motion, when the camera takes only one frame then the subject is manipulated or allowed to change before taking another frame.

In this clip from Vertov’s Man with the Movie Camera (Chelovek s kinoapparatom, USSR, 1929) stop motion is used to give the impression that the chairs open up by themselves.

In Kurosawa’s Seven Samurai (Shichinin no samurai, Japan, 1954), slow motion is used to contrast the emotional rescue of a child with the death of the man who kidnapped him.

Question 294

TELEPHOTO SHOT

Answer 294

An image shot with an extremely long lens is called a telephoto shot. The effect of using a long lens is to compress the apparent depth of an image, so that elements that are relatively close or far away from the camera seem to lie at approximately the same distance. In this first shot from Payback (Brian Helgeland, 1999), we can clearly see there is a considerable distance beteen the fallen body and the red car.

Yet, when a telephoto lens is used for a close-up of Mel Gibson, his face looks like it is pressed against the car! Here a telephoto lens create a canted framing to suggest the physical and psychological disarray of a man who has been betrayed, shot, and left for dead.

Question 295

ZOOM SHOT

Answer 295

The zoom shot uses a lens with several elements that allows the filmmaker to change the focal length of the lens (see crane or medium long shot of people cueing up at a museum’s entrance to a medium close-up of the female protagonist.

Few cinematic techniques are used in isolation. Notice how the woman “helps” the zoom to achieve its purpose of singling her out by moving around.

Question 296

FRAMING

Answer 296

In one sense, cinema is an art of selection. The edges of the image create a “frame” that includes or excludes aspects of what occurs in front of the camera — the “profilmic event”. The expressive qualities of framing include the angle of the camera to the object, the aspect ratio of the projected image, the relationship between camera and object, and the association of camera with character. In Cruel Story of Youth (Seishun zankoku monogatari, Oshima Nagisa, 1960) the radical decentering of the character in relation to the frame marks their failed struggle to find a place in their world.

Question 297

ANGLE OF FRAMING

Answer 297

Many films are shot with a camera that appears to be at approximately the same height as its subject. However, it is possible to film from a position that is significantly lower or higher than the dominant element of the shot. In that case, the image is described as low angle or high angle respectively. Angle of framing can be used to indicate the relation between a character and the camera’s point of view. Or can simply be used to create striking visual compositions.

Camera angle is often used to suggest either vulnerability or power. In The Color of Paradise (Rang-e Khoda,1999) the father, who rules absolute over his family, is often portrayed from a low angle, therefore aggrandizing his figure.

On the other hand, his blind son Mohammad and his elderly grandmother are often shot from a high angle, emphasizing their dependence and smallness. These interpretations are not exclusive, however. The relation between camera and subject can be rendered ironic, or it may suggest more the subject of perception than to the state of the object. The father in this film is so busy smiling at his fiancee that he falls off his horse, while Mohammed and her granny seen from above may also indicate that God is watching over them, and keeping them under protection.

Question 298

ASPECT RATIO

Answer 298

The ratio of the horizontal to the vertical sides of an image. Until the 1950s almost all film was shot in a 4:3 or 1.33:1 aspect ratio. Some filmmakers used multiple projectors to create a wider aspect ratio whereas others claimed that the screen should be square, not rectangular. Widescreen formats became more popular in the 1950s and now films are made in a variety of aspect ratios — some of the most common being 1.66:1, 1.76:1, 1.85:1, and 2.35:1 (cinemascope).

Widescreen films are often trimmed for television or video release, effectively altering the original compositions. Some DVD’s have the option of showing the film in its original format and in a reduced ratio that fits the TV screen. Compare the same frame from Bertolucci’s Besieged (L’Assedio, 1998). Objects appear much more cramped with the reduced aspect ratio, giving an impression of physical (and psychological) space different from the theatrical release.

Question 299

LEVEL OF FRAMING

Answer 299

Not only the angle from which a camera films but the height can also be a significant element in a film. A low-level camera is placed close to the ground whereas a high-level camera would be placed above the typical perspective shown in the cinema. Camera level is used to signify sympathy for characters who occupy particular levels in the image, or just to create pleasurable compositions. Camera level is obviously used to a greater advantage when the difference in height bewteen objects or characters is greater. In The Color of Paradise (Rang-e Khoda, Iran, 1999) Majid Majidi uses different camera height to emphasize the difference between Mohammad and his father.

In the first image, the camera concentrates on Mohammad as he recognizes his father’s hand, after patiently waiting for him for hours. The father is almost absent from the scene; only the part of him that Mohammad touches is visible, therefore increasing our empathy with the blind boy. On the second image, camera level is adjusted to the father’s size, making Mohammed a puny, defenceless figure in a world that overcomes him. The first shot is on Mohammad’s School for the Blind, while the second is on a shop in Tehran. Through different camera levels, the director makes clear where Mohammad’s fits and where he does not.

Question 300

CANTED FRAMING

Answer 300

Canted Framing is a view in which the frame is not level; either the right or left side is lower than the other, causing objects in the scene to appear slanted out of an upright positon.Canted framings are used to create an impression of chaos and instability. They are therefore associated with the frantic rhythms of action films, music videos and animation.

Many Hong Kong films of the 80s and 90s blend elements of the genres mentioned above, for instance Tsui Hark’s Peking Opera Blues (Do Ma Daan, 1986). These films employ unconventional framings to achieve their signature dizzing, freewheeling style. Canted framings are also common when shooting with a Steadycam.

Question 301

FOLLOWING SHOT

Answer 301

A shot with framing that shifts to keep a moving figure onscreen. A following shot combines a camera movement, like tracking, craning, with the specific function of directing our attention to a character or object as he/she/it moves inside the frame. In this shot from Eyes Wide Shut (Stanley Kubrick, 1999) the camera pans slightly to accompany a couple into the ballroom floor.

Question 302

REFRAMING

Answer 302

Short panning or tilting movements to adjust for the figures’ movements, keeping them onscreen or centered. An important technique of continuity editing, thanks to its unobstrusive nature. The characters’ actions take precedence over the camera movements, as in this dancing scene from Kubrick’s Eyes Wide Shut (1999)

Question 303

POV SHOT

Answer 303

A shot taken with the camera placed approximately where the character’s eyes would be, showing what the character would see; usually cut in before or after a shot of the character looking. Horror films and thrillers often use POV shots to suggest a menacing and unseen presence in the scene. Films that use many point-of-view shots tend toward dynamic and non-naturalistic style. In this clip from Peking Opera Blues (Do Ma Daan, Tsui Hark, Hong Kong, 1986) the female impersonator’s fear of the soldier who attempts to procure him for his general is rendered comic by the cut to POV and wide angle.

POV is one of the means by which audiences are encouraged to identify with characters. However, it is actually a relatively rare technique: identificatory mechanisms rely more on sympathetic character and the flow of narrative information than on simple optical affiliation.

Question 304

WIDE ANGLE LENS

Answer 304

A lens of short focal length that affects a scene’s perspective by distorting straight lines near the edges of the frame and by exaggerating the distance between foreground and background planes. In doing so it allows for more space to enter the frame (hence the name “wide”), which makes it more convenient for shooting in a closed location, for instance a real room, rather than a three-wall studio room. In addition, a wider lens allows for a bigger depth of field. In 35mm filming, a wide angle lens is 30mm or less. See also telephoto lens.

Since a wide angle lens distorts the edges of an image, as in this frame from Yi Yi (Edward Yang, Taiwan, 2000), extreme wide lenses are avoided in naturalistic styles, or they are used in unrestrained or open spaces, with no converging lines around the edges of the frame.

Question 305

SCALE

Answer 305

If the same object were filmed at different shot scales it would often signify quite differently. Shot scale can foster intimacy with a character, or conversely, it can swallow the character in its environment.Orson Welles exploited divergent shot scales in Citizen Kane (1941) to demonstrate the changing power relationship between Charles Foster Kane and his lawyer. As a boy, his figure is lost in the snow at the back of the shot as the lawyer arranges for his adoption. As a young man he rebels against Bernstein’s oversight, rising in the frame as he asserts himself.

Question 306

EXTREME LONG SHOT

Answer 306

A framing in which the scale of the object shown is very small; a building, landscape, or crowd of people will fill the screen. Usually the first or last shots of a sequence, that can also function as establishing shots.. The following examples of framing from Eyes Wide Shut (Stanley Kubrick, 1999) and A Summer Tale (Conte d’Été, Eric Rohmer, 1996) well illustrate the range of uses for this particular shot scale.

These two extreme long shots are also establishing shots. However, their primary function is different. Whereas Rohmer give us a standard establishing shot that introduces the locale where the main characters are about to meet, Kubrick uses the ballroom shot mainly as a brief transition between two more important scenes. While the two shots above have similar sizes, some extreme long shots can be significantly larger, particularly if shot from the air with the help of cranes or helicopters. This kind of extreme long shot is also called bird’s eye view shot, since it gives an aerial perspective of the scene.

Question 307

LONG SHOT

Answer 307

A framing in which the scale of the object shown is small; a standing human figure would appear nearly the height of the screen. It makes for a relatively stable shot that can accomodate movement without reframing. It is therefore commonly used in genres where a full body action is to be seen in its entirety, for instance Hollywood Musicals or 1970s Martial Arts films.

Another advantage of the long shot is that it allows to show a character and her/his surroundings in a single frame, as in these two images from Eyes Wide Shut (Stanley Kubrick, 1999) and A Summer Tale (Conte d’Été, Eric Rohmer, 1996).

Question 308

MEDIUM LONG SHOT

Answer 308

Framing such than an object four or five feet high would fill most of the screen vertically. Also called plain américain, given its recurrence in the Western genre, where it was important to keep a cowboy’s weapon in the image.

Question 309

MEDIUM CLOSE UP

Answer 309

A framing in which the scale of the object shown is fairly large; a human figure seen from the chest up would fill most of the screen. Another common shot scale.

Eyes Wide Shut (Stanley Kubrick, 1999)

Question 310

CLOSE UP

Answer 310

A framing in which the scale of the object shown is relatively large. In a close-up a person’s head, or some other similarly sized object, would fill the frame. Framing scales are not universal, but rather established in relationship with other frames from the same film. These two shots from Eyes Wide Shut and A Summer Tale can be described as close-ups, even if one starts at the neck and the second at the upper chest..

Framing scales are usually drawn in relationship to the human figure but this can be misleading since a frame need not include people. Accordingly, this shot from The Color of Paradise (Rang-e Khoda, Majid Majidi, Iran,1999) is also a close-up.

Question 311

EXTREME CLOSEUP

Answer 311

A framing in which the scale of the object shown is very large; most commonly, a small object or a part of the body usually shot with a zoom lens. Again, faces are the most recurrent images in extreme close-ups, as these images fromThe Color of Paradise (Rang-e Khoda,Majid Majidi, 1999),

The Stendhal Syndrome (La Sindrome di Stendhal, Dario Argento, 1996),

and My Neighbor Totoro (Tonari No Totoro, Miyazaki Hayao, 1988) demonstrate. With regard to the latter, it should be noted that while all of these film terms equally applies to animation, the technical procedure to achieve a particular effect can be very different. For instance this last frame is a drawing of Totoro’s teeth, not a zoom on his face, as it would have been the case in a live-action film.

Question 312

MOVEMENT

Answer 312

There are many ways to move a camera: in fluid long takes, rapid and confusing motions, etc. that establish the tracking shot. Furthermore, one soon realizes that the whole process is probably being mirrored by a second car, in order to film the first one.

Scenes taken from both cameras are playfully incorporated into the film. Was this image of the car passing by taken by the first or the second car/camera unit?

Question 313

CRANE SHOT

Answer 313

A shot with a change in framing rendered by having the camera above the ground and moving through the air in any direction. It is accomplished by placing the camera on a crane (basically, a large cantilevered arm) or similar device. Crane shots are often extreme long shots: they lend the camera a sense of mobility and often give the viewer a feeling of omniscience over the characters.

Crane shots can also be used to achieve a flowing rhythm, particularly in a long take, as in this clip from The Player (Altman, 1992)

Question 314

HANDHELD- STEADYCAM

Answer 314

The use of the camera operator’s body as a camera support, either holding it by hand or using a gyroscopic stabilizer and a harness. Newsreel and wartime camera operators favored smaller cameras such as the Eclair that were quickly adopted by documentarist and avant-garde filmmakers, notably the cinéma verité movement of the 1950s and 1960s. They were also used by young filmmakers since they were cheap and lent the images a greater feeling of sponteneity. At the time this challenge to prevailing standards was perceived as anti-cinematic but eventually it came to be accepted as a style. Whereas hand held cameras give a film an unstable, jerky feel, they also allows for a greater degree of movement and flexibility than bulkier standard cameras –at a fraction of the cost. Filmmakers now are experimenting with digital video in a similar way. Gyroscopically stabilized “steadicams” were invented in the 1970s and made it possible to create smooth “tracking” shots without cumbersome equipment. More recently, they are extensively used in music videos and in the films of the Dogme movement, such as Lars Von Trier’s Dancer in the Dark(Denmark, 2000)

Ironically, while today’s steadicams allow for a fairly stable image, Lars Von Trier and his accolites prefer to exacerbate the jerkiness and unstability traditionally associated with these cameras as a marker of visceral autorial intervention. In fact, combining steadicam shooting with aggressive jump cuts , or even by shooting on low definition formats, Dogme and other radical filmmaking movements attempt to create a new cinematic look as further away as possible from mainstream Hollywood.

Question 315

PAN

Answer 315

A camera movement with the camera body turning to the right or left. On the screen, it produces a mobile framing which scans the space horizontally. A pan directly and immediately connects two places or characters, thus making us aware of their proximity. The speed at which a pan occurs can be expoited for different dramatic purposes. For instance, in a Mizoguchi or a Hou film, two characters may be having a conversation in a room, and after several minutes, the camera might pan and reveal a third person was also present, thus changing the whole implication of the scene. In a film like Traffic (Steven Soderbergh, 2000), on the other hand, pans are usually very quick, suggesting that characters have no time to waste, and that decisions must be taken fast, therefore contributing to the sense of imminent danger and moral urgency that the films tries to communicate.

Question 316

TILT

Answer 316

A camera movement with the camera body swiveling upward or downward on a stationary support. It produces a mobile framing that scans the space vertically. Its function is similar to that of tracking shots, albeit on a vertical axis. In this clip from Besieged (L’Assedio, Italy, 1998) Bernardo Bertolucci uses a tilt to establish the social (and even racial) distance between an African housemaid and her wealthy English employer.

A tilt usually also implies a change in the offscreen space. This can be exploited for suspense, since a sense of anticipation grows in the viewer as the camera movement forces her/his attention in a precise direction, yet never knowing when it will stop, nor what will be found there.

Question 317

TRACKING SHOT

Answer 317

A mobile framing that travels through space forward, backward, or laterally. See also pan, and continuity editing style. As cameras became lighter and match on action.

The first is a classic tracking shot, with the camera on rails sideways to the character that is moving, following the child as the trains departs. The second uses the train as a dolly, as it moves away from the running child. Indeed, tracking shots are one of the most suggestive and creative camera movements, one that can be accomplished in a number of clever ways. Not surprisingly, some long takes.

Question 318

WHIP PAN

Answer 318

An extremely fast movement of the camera from side to side, which briefly causes the image to blur into a set of indistinct horizontal streaks. Often an imperceptible cut will join two whip pans to create a trick transition between scenes. As opposed to action or continuity style– whip pans always stand out, given their abrupt, brisk nature. Commonly used in flashy action genres such as kung-fu movies from the 70s, like Fists of Fury (Tang Shan Da Xiong, Wei Lo, Honk Kong, 1971).

Question 319

TRANSITIONS- EDITING

Answer 319

The shot is defined by editing but editing also works to join shots together. There are many ways of effecting that transition, some more evident than others. In the analytical tradition, editing serves to establish space and lead the viewer to the most salient aspects of a scene. In the classical Soviet Montage cinema, there is no such false modesty. Vertov’s Man with the Movie Camera (Chelovek s kinoapparatom, USSR, 1929) celebrates the power of the cinema to create a new reality out of disparate fragments.

Question 320

CHEAT CUT

Answer 320

Cheat cut. In the continuity editing system, a cut which purports to show continuous time and space from shot to shot but which actually mismatches the position of figures or objects in the scene. In this sequence from Meet Me in St. Louis (Vincente Minelli, 1944) the editing sacrifices actual physical space for dramatic space. As we can see in the first shot, there is a wall behind the telephone.

However, that wall magically disappears in the third shot in order to show both the telephone and the family seated around the dining table (an important element in the film) from an angle that would had been impossible in an actual room. Cheat cuts were also often used to disguise the relatively short stature of leading men in relation to their statuesque female co-stars.

Question 321

CROSS-CUTTING/PARALLEL EDITING

Answer 321

Editing that alternates shots of two or more lines of action occurring in different places, usually simultaneously. The two actions are therefore linked, associating the characters from both lines of action. In this extended clip from Edward Yang’s Yi Yi (Taiwan, 2000), father and daughter go out on dates at presumably the same time, and go through the same motions, even if the father is in Japan and the daughter in Taipei.

To further stress the similarities, the father is actually reliving his first date with his first girlfriend (whom

Question 322

CUT IN/CUT AWAY

Answer 322

An instantaneous shift from a distant framing to a closer view of some portion fo the same space, and vice versa. In Lars Von Trier’s Dancer in the Dark ( Denmark, 2000) Selma and Bill have a dramatic conversation in Bill’s car that is framed by a cut-in and a cut-away.

The two cuts neatly bracket Bill’s anguished confession as a separate moment, private and isolated, that only Selma knows about. This editing-constructed secrecy will ultimately have drastic consequences for Selma.

Question 323

DISSOLVE

Answer 323

A transition between two shots during which the first image gradually disappears while the second image gradually appears; for a moment the two images blend in superimposition. Dissolves can be used as a fairly straighforward editing device to link any two scenes, or in more creative ways, for instance to suggest hallucinatory states. In this series of shots from The Stendhal Syndrome (La Sindrome di Stendhal, Dario Argento, 1996), a young woman becomes so absorbed by Brueghel’s The Fall of Icarus that she actually dives into the painting’s sea! (at least in her imagination, in “real life” she faints).

Jump cuts are used expressively, to suggest the ruminations or ambivalences of a character, or of his/her everyday life, but they are also a clear signifier of rupture with mainstream film storytelling. Rather than presenting a film as a perfectly self-contained story that seamlessly unfold in front of us, jump cuts are like utterances that evidentiates both the artificiality and the difficulties of telling such a story.

Question 324

ESTABLISHING/RE-ESTABLISHING

Answer 324

A shot, usually involving a distant framing, that shows the spatial relations among the important figures, objects, and setting in a scene. Usually, the first few shots in a scene are establishing shots, as they introduces us to a location and the space relationships inside it.

In the initial sequence from Peking Opera Blues (Do Ma Daan, Honk Kong,1986), director Tsui Hark uses three shots to establish the locale. In the first one, three musicians are shown against a fireplace in what looks like a luxurious room. Our suspicions are confirmed by the second establishing shot, which shows us the other half of the ample room (shot/ reverse shot) and reveals a party going on.

After this introduction, the camera moves forward with several close-ups of both the musicians and the spectators. At the end of the sequence, Hark shows us the entire room in a larger shot. This final establishing shot is called areestablishing shot, for it shows us once again the spatial relationships introduced with the establishing shots.

Question 325

SHOT/REVERSE SHOT

Answer 325

Two or more shots edited together that alternate characters, typically in a conversation situation. In eyeline matches. These conventions have become so strong that they can be exploited to make improbable meanings convincing, as in this sequence from The Stendhal Syndrome (La Sindrome di Stendhal, Italy,1996). Director Dario Argento has his protagonist Anna looking at Botticelli’s The Birth of Venus (c1485)…

…but with the use of successive shot/ reverse shots, eyeline matches and matching framings, it soons begins to look as if Venus herself is looking at Anna!

Question 326

SUPERIMPOSITION

Answer 326

The exposure of more than one image on the same film strip. Unlike a dissolve, a superimposition does not signify a transition from one scene to another. The technique was often used to allow the same performer to appear simultaneously as two characters on the screen (for example Son of the Sheik), to express subjective or intoxicated vision (The Last Laugh), or simply to introduce a narrative element from another part of the diegetic world into the scene. In this clip from Neighbors (Buster Keaton, 1920), the resentful father of the bride looks at the wedding ring and immediately associates in his mind with a five and dime store. The subjective shot gives us a clear indication of his opinion of his soon to be son-in-law.

Question 327

WIPE

Answer 327

A transition betwen shots in which a line passes across the screen, eliminating the first shot as it goes and replacing it with the next one. A very dynamic and noticeable transition, it is usually employed in action or adventure films. It often suggest a brief temporal ellypsis and a direct connection between the two images. In this example from Kurosawa’s Seven Samurai (Sichinin No Samurai, Japan, 1954), the old man’s words are immediately corroborated by the wandering, destitute samurai coming into town.

As other transitions devices, like the whip pan, wipes became fashionable at an specific historical time (the 1950s and 1960s), so much so as to became stylistic markers of the film of the period.

Question 328

MATCHES**

Answer 328

Editing matches refer to those techniques that join as well as divide two shots by making some form of connection between them. That connection can be inferred from the situation portrayed in the scene (for example, graphic match).

Question 329

EYELINE MATCH

Answer 329

A cut obeying the axis of action principle, in which the first shot shows a person off in one direction and the second shows a nearby space containing what he or she sees. If the person looks left, the following shot should imply that the looker is offscreen right. The following shots from Dario Argento’s The Stendhal Syndrome (La Sindrome di Stendhal, Italy, 1996), depict Anna looking at a painting, Brueghel’s The Fall of Icarus. The scene takes place inside Firenze’s most famous museum, the Uffizi Gallery.

First we see her looking… then we see what she looks at.

As her interest grows, the eyeline match (that is the connection between looker and looked) is stressed with matching close-ups of Anna’s face and Icarus’s falling into the ocean in the painting.Again, this implies that Anna is looking directly at Icarus’s body.

Ironically, even if Argento managed to film inside the real Uffizi gallery, the painting he wanted to use, The Fall of Icarus, is not part of the museum’s collection! The painting that we see is probably a reproduction, shot in the studio, and edited together with Anna’s shots in the Uffizi to make us believe that they are both in the same room. As this example demonstrates, eyeline matches can be a very persuasive tool to construct space in a film, real or imagined.

Question 330

GRAPHIC MATCH

Answer 330

Two successive shots joined so as to create a strong similarity of compositional elements (e.g., color, shape). Used in trasparent continuity styles to smooth the transition between two shots, as in this clip from Women On The Verge Of A Nervous Breakdown (Mujeres al Borde de un Ataque de Nervios, Almodóvar, 1988).

Graphic matches can also be used to make metaphorical associations, as in Soviet continuity style. Here is an example from Traffic (Steven Soderbergh, 2000)

A match on action adds variety and dynamism to a scene, since it conveys two movements: the one that actually takes place on screen, and an implied one by the viewer, since her/his position is shifted.

Question 331

DURATION

Answer 331

Only since the introduction of editing to the cinema at the turn of the 20th century has not-editing become an option. The decision to extend a shot can be as significant as the decision to cut it. Editing can affect the experience of time in the cinema by creating a gap between screen time and diegetic time (overlapping editing) or by establishing a fast or slow rhythm for the scene.

Question 332

LONG TAKE/PLAN SEQUENCE

Answer 332

A shot that continues for an unusually lengthy time before the transition to the next shot. The average lenght per shot differs greatly for different times and places, but most contemporary films tend to have faster editing rates. In general lines, any shot above one minute can be considered a long take. Here is an excerpt from the initial shot of Robert Altman’s The Player (1992) which not only runs for more than eight minutes, but it is in itself an hommage to another famous long take, the first shot of Welles’s Touch of Evil (1958).

Unless shot at a fixed angle, with a fixed camera and no movement, long takes are extremely hard to shoot. They have to be choreographed and rehearsed to the last detail, since any error would make it necessary to start all over again from scratch. Sophisticated long takes such as this one from The Player, which includes all kinds of camera zooms, are often seen as rhythm. Depending on how much movement is included, a long take can make a film tense, stagnant and spell-binding, or daring, flowing and carefree.Indeed, directors like Altman, Welles, Renoir, Angelopoulos, Tarkovski or Mizoguchi have made long takes (usually in combination with deep space) an essential part of their film styles.

Question 333

OVERLAPPING EDITING

Answer 333

Cuts that repeat part or all of an action, thus expanding its viewing time and plot duration. Most commonly associated with experimental filmmmaking, due to its temporally disconcerting and purely graphic nature, it is also featured in films in which action and movement take precedence over plot and dialogue: sports documentaries, musicals, martial arts, etc. Overlapping editing is a common characteristic of the frenzied Hong Kong action films of the 80s and 90s. When director John Woo moved to Hollywood, he tried to incorporate some of that style into mainstream action films, such as Mission: Impossible 2 (2000).

Question 334

RHYTHM

Answer 334

The perceived rate and regularity of sounds, series of shots, and movements within the shots. Rhythmic factors include beat (or pulse), accent (or stress), and tempo (or pace). Rhythm is one of the essential features of a film, for it decisively contributes to its mood and overall impression on the spectator. It is also one of the most complex to analyze, since it is achieved through the combination of mise-en-scene, cinematography, sound and editing. Indeed, rhythm can be understood as the final balance all of the elements of a film. Let us compare how rhythm can radically alter the treatment of a similar scene. These two clips from Deconstructing Harry (Woody Allen, 1997) and Cries and Whispers (Viskingar Och Rop, Ingmar Bergman, Sweden1972) feature a couple at a table, and both clips feature a moment of fracture between the two characters. Still, they could not be more dissimilar. Allen employs fast cuts (even pans, quick dialogue and gesturing, as he concentrates exclusively on the two characters, shot from a variety of angles but always in close-up.

Even if both characters overtly disagree with each other, there is an overall feeling of warmth and inmediacy between them, suggested by their proximity (established in short pans and close-ups) and in the tone of their speech. The quick camera movements and different camera placements suggest the uneasiness of both characters, as they budge on their seats.

Cries and Whispers, on the other hand, present us with a scene of horrifying stillness. Bergman accentuates the separation between man and woman by shooting them frontally and almost eliminating dialogue. In this context, even the smallest sounds of forks and knives sound ominous; a glass shattering resonates like a shot.

Furthermore, the mise-en-scene becomes as equally, if not more, important than the characters, reducing everything to dour red, black and whites. The feeling of claustrophobia is enhanced by the use of shallow space, having the characters become one with the austere backgrounds. Pace is deliberately slow, and it only quickes when the glass breaks and both characters lift up their heads, only to immediately return to normal. Bergman accelerates the rhythm for a second, punctuating the moment of the glass breaking so that a trivial incident is magnified into a clear signal of disaster.

Lastly, rhythm is, almost by definition, intrisically related to music and sound. Some of the most striking examples of the use of music as a film’s driving force occur in the (endlessly imitated) spaghetti westerns of Sergio Leone, which were written in close collaboration with composer Ennio Morricone. In fact, sometimes the music would be composed first and then a scene that fitted that rhythm would be shot, thus reversing the customary order.

The prelude to the final showdown of The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (Il Buono, il Brutto, il Cattivo, Italy, 1966) runs for several minutes (of which we only see the last minute here), as three men face each other in a triangle, waiting to see who will take the first step. One of the film’s theme songs is played in its entirety, from a slow, elegiac beginning to a frenzy crescendo that is abruptly cut off by the first gunshot. The slow mounting crescendo is paralleled by an increase in the editing rate, and an intensified long shot similar to the previous one).

Question 335

STYLES OF EDITING

Answer 335

The patterned use of transitions, matches and duration can be identified as a cinematic style. Editing styles are usually associated with historical moments, technological developments, or national schools.

Question 336

CONTINUITY EDITING

Answer 336

A system of cutting to maintain continuous and clear narrative action. Continuity editing relies upon matching screen direction, position, and temporal relations from shot to shot. The film supports the viewer’s assumption that space and time are contiguous between successive shots. Also, the diegesis is more readily understood when directions on the screen match directions in the world of the film. The “180° rule,” shown in the diagram below, dictates that the camera should stay in one of the areas on either side of the axis of action (an imaginary line drawn between the two major dramatic elements A and B in a scene, usually two characters).

By following this rule the filmmaker ensures that each character occupies a consistent area of the frame, helping the audience to understand the layout of the scene. This sense of a consistent space is reinforced by the use of techniques such as the match on action. In this sequence from Neighbors (Buster Keaton, 1920), continuity is maintained by the spatial and temporal contiguity of the shots and the preservation of direction between world and screen. More importantly, the shots are matched on Keaton’s actions as he shuttles across the courtyard from stairwell to stairwell.

In the Hollywood shot/reverse shots. The 180° line is not usually crossed unless the transition is smoothed by a reestablishing shot.

Question 337

MONTAGE

Answer 337

1. A synonym for editing. 2. An approach to editing developed by the Soviet filmmakers of the 1920s such as Pudovkin, Vertov and Eisenstein; it emphasizes dynamic, often discontinuous, relationships between shots and the juxtaposition of images to create ideas not present in either shot by itself. Sergei Eisenstein, in particular, developed a complex theory of montage that included montage within the shot, between sound and image, multiple levels of overtones, as well as in the conflict between two shots. This sequence from October (Oktyabr, USSR, 1927) is an example of Eisenstein’s intellectual montage. The increasingly primitive icons from various world religions are linked by patterns of duration, screen direction and shot scale to produce the concept of religion as a degenerate practice used to legitimate corrupt states.

Soviet Montage proved to be influential around the world for commercial as well as avant-garde filmmakers. We can see echoes of Pudovkin in The Grapes of Wrath (John Ford, USA, 1939), Mother India (Mehboob Khan, India, 1957), and The Godfather (Francis Ford Coppola, USA, 1973). In a famous sequence from the latter film, shots of Michael attending his son’s baptism are intercut with the brutal killings of his rivals. Rather than stressing the temporal simultaneity of the events (it is highly unlikely that all of the New York Mafia heads can be caught off guard at exactly the same time!), the montage suggests Michael’s dual nature and committement to both his “families”, as well as his ability to gain acceptance into both on their own terms — through religion and violence.

Question 338

ELLIPTICAL EDITING

Answer 338

Shot transitions that omit parts of an event, causing an ellipses in plot and story duration. In this clip from Traffic (Steven Soderbergh, 2000), a drug party is rendered through elliptical editing (achieved with a plentiful use of jump cuts) in order to both shorten the time and suggest the character’s rambling mental states.

Elliptical editing need not be confined to a same place and time. A seven-minute song sequence from Hum Aapke Hain Koun (Sooraj Bartjatya, India 1994) dances us through several months in the life of a family, from a cricket match to a ritual welcoming a new wife.

from scenes of the newlyweds’ daily life… to the announcement of Pooja’s pregnacy,

from a gift shower for the upcoming baby… to multiple scenes of celebrations, as Pooja approaches her ninth month.

Question 339

SOUND EDITING

Answer 339

Sound in the cinema does not necessarily match the image, nor does it have to be continuous. The sound bridge is used to ease the transition between shots in the continuity style. Sound can also be used to reintroduce events from earlier in the diegesis. Especially since the introduction of magnetic tape recording after WWII, the possibilities of sound manipulation and layering have increased tremendously. Directors such as Robert Altman are famous for their complex use of the soundtrack, layering multiple voices and sound effects in a sort of “sonic deep focus.” In this clip from Nashville (1975), we simultaneously hear a conversation between an English reporter and her guide, a gospel choir singing, and the sound engineers’ chatter.

Question 340

SOUND BRIDGE

Answer 340

Sound bridges can lead in or out of a scene. They can occur at the beginning of one scene when the sound from the previous scene carries over briefly before the sound from the new scene begins. Alternatively, they can occur at the end of a scene, when the sound from the next scene is heard before the image appears on the screen. Sound bridges are one of the most common transitions in the continuity editing style, one that stresses the connection between both scenes since their mood (suggested by the music) is still the same. But sound bridges can also be used quite creatively, as in this clip from Yi Yi (Taiwan, 2000). Director Edward Yang uses a sound bridge both to play with our expectations. The clip begins with a high angle shot of a couple arguing under a highway. A piano starts playing and the scene cuts into a house interior, where a pregnant woman is looking at some cd’s…

…finally, the camera pans to reveal a young girl (previously offscreen) playing the piano. It is only then that we realize the music is diegetic, and that the young girl was looking at the window at her best friend and her boyfriend. The romantic melody she plays as she realizes they are breaking up in turn introduces a now possible future relationship for her — which eventually happens, as she starts dating her best friend’s ex-boyfriend later in the film.

Question 341

SONIC FLASHBACK

Answer 341

Sound from one diegetic time is heard over images from a later time. In this example from Kurosawa’s No Regrets for Our Youth (Waga seishun ni kui nashi, Japan, 1946), the heroine Yukie hears the voices of her dead father and executed husband, voicing the aspirations that sustain her continuing struggle.

Sonic flashback often carries this kind of moral or emotional overtone, making a character’s motivation explicit.

Question 342

SOUND SOURCE

Answer 342

Most basically, this category refers to the place of a sound in relation to the frame and to the world of the film. A sound can be onscreen or offscreen, diegetic or nondiegetic (including voice over), it can be recorded separately from the image or at the moment of filming. Sound source depends on numerous technical, economic, and aesthetic considerations, each of which can affect the final significance of a film.

Question 343

NON-DIEGETIC/DIEGETIC

Answer 343

Any voice, musical passage, or sound effect presented as originating froma source within the film’s world is diegetic. If it originates outside the film (as most background music) then it is non-diegetic.

A further distinction can be made between external and internal diegetic sound. In the first clip from Almodóvar’s Women On The Verge Of A Nervous Breakdown (Mujeres al Borde de un Ataque de Nervios, 1988) we hear Iván speaking into the microphone as he works on the Spanish dubbing of Johnny Guitar (Nicholas Ray, 1954). Since he is speaking out loud and any other character could hear him, this is an example of external diegetic sound. This clip has no non-diegetic sounds other than the brief keyboard chord that introduces the scene.

Sound and diegesis gets more complicated in the next clip, from Dario Argento’s The Stendhal Syndrome (La Sindrome di Stendhal, Italy, 1996). As Anna looks at Paolo Uccello’s famous painting of the Battle of San Romano(c1435), we begin to hear the sounds of the battle: horses whimpering, weapons clashing, etc. These sounds exist only in Anna’s troubled mind, which is highly sensitive to works of art. These are internal diegetic sounds (inside of a character’s mind) that no one else in the gallery can hear.

On the other hand, the Ennio Morricone eerie score that sets up the scene and mixes with the battle sounds, is a common example of non-diegetic sound, sounds that only the spectators can hear. (Obviously, no boom-box blasting tourist is allowed into the Uffizi’s gallery!)

Question 344

DIRECT SOUND

Answer 344

When using direct sound, the music, noise, and speech of the profilmic event at the moment of filming is recorded in the film. This is the opposite of postsynchronization in which the sound is dubbed on top of an existing, silent image. Studio systems use multiple microphones to record directly and with the utmost clarity. On the other hand, some national cinemas, notably Italy, India and Japan, have avoided direct sound at some stage in their histories and dubbed the dialogues to the film after the shooting. But direct sound can also mean something other than the clearly defined synchronized sound of Hollywood films — the Cinéma verité, third world filmmaking and other documentarist, improvisatory and realist styles that also record sound directly but with an elementary microphone set-up, as in Abbas Kiarostami’s Taste of Cherry (Ta’m e Guilass, Iran, 1997).

The result maintains the immediacy of direct sound at the expense of clarity. Furthermore, incidental sounds (street noise, etc) are not mixed down, but left “as it is”. Impression and mood are favored over precision: not every word can be made out. The final sonic picture is blurred and harder to understand, but arguably closer to what we perceive in real life.

Question 345

NON SIMULTANEOUS SOUND

Answer 345

Diegetic sound that comes from a source in time either earlier or later than the images it accompanies. In this clip from Almodóvar’s Women On The Verge Of A Nervous Breakdown (Mujeres al Borde de un Ataque de Nervios, Spain, 1988) Pepa adds the female voice to the dubbing of Johnny Guitar, the male voice having previously been recorded by Pepa’s ex-lover Ivan. (You can see Ivan’s dubbing here)

While Pepa’s voice is diagetic and simultaneous, Ivan’s voice is also diegetic, and yet it is nonsimultaneous, since it comes from a previous moment in the film. Almodóvar uses nonsimultaneous sound to establish a conversation that should have taken place but never did (Ivan is not returning Pepa’s calls and she is becoming desperate) when, with a perverse melodramatic twist, he has the jilted lovers repeating the words of another couple of cinematic jilted lovers. As in this example, nonsimultaneous sound is often used to suggest recurrent obsessions and other hallucinatory states.

OFFSCREEN SOUND
Simultaneous sound from a source assumed to be in the space of the scene but outside what is visible onscreen. In Life on Earth (La Vie sur Terre, Abderrahmane Sissako, 1998) a telephone operator tries to help a woman getting a call trough. While he tries to establish a connection, the camera examines the office and the other people present in the scene. Yet, even if the operator and the woman are now offscreen, their centrality to the scene is alway tangible through sounds (dialing, talking, etc).

Of course, a film may use offscreen sound to play with our assumptions. In this clip from Women On The Verge Of A Nervous Breakdown (Mujeres al Borde de un Ataque de Nervios, Pedro Almodóvar, 1988), we hear a woman and a man’s voices in conversation, in what it looks like a film production studio. Even if we do not see the speakers, we instantly believe they must be around. Gradually, the camera shows us that we are in a dubbing studio, and only the woman is present, the man’s voice being previously recorded. Moreover, theirs is not a real conversation but lines from a movie dialogue.

Question 346

POST SYNCHRONIZATION DUBBING

Answer 346

The process of adding sound to images after they have been shot and assembled. This can include dubbing of voices, as well as inserting diegetic music or sound effects. It is the opposite of direct sound. It is not, however, the opposite of synchronous sound, since sound and image are also matched here, even if at a later stage in the editing process. Compare the French dubbed, or post-synchronized, version of Mission: Impossible 2 (John Woo, 2000), with the sychronized original.

Question 347

SOUND PERSPECTIVE

Answer 347

The sense of a sound’s position in space, yielded by volume, timbre, pitch, and, in stereophonic reproduction systems, binaural information. Used to create a more realistic sense of space, with events happening (that is, coming from) closer or further away. Listen closely to this clip from The Magnificent Ambersons (Orson Welles, 1942) as the woman goes through her door and comes back.

As soon as she closes the door her voice sounds muffled and distant (she is walking away), then grows clearer (she is coming back), then at full volume again, as she comes out. We can also hear hushing remarks that gives us a sense of the absent presence of a whole web of family members in the house. The stronger the voice, the closer his/ her room. Sound perspective, combined with offscreen space, also gives us clues as to who (and most importantly, where) is present in a scene. Welles’ use of sound in this scene is unusual since Classical Hollywood Cinema generally sacrifices sound perspective to narrative comprehensibility.

Question 348

SYNCHRONOUS SOUND

Answer 348

Sound that is matched temporally with the movements occuring in the images, as when dialogue corresponds to lip movements. The norm for Hollywood films is to synchronize sound and image at the moment of shooting; others national cinemas do it later (see direct sound, postsynchronization) Compare the original English version of Mission: Impossible 2 (John Woo, 2000),

with the French dubbed version.

Question 349

VOICEOVER

Answer 349

When a voice, often that of a character in the film, is heard while we see an image of a space and time in which that character is not actually speaking. The voice over is often used to give a sense of a character’s subjectivity or to narrate an event told in flashback. It is overwhelmingly associated with genres such as film noir, and its obsessesive characters with a dark past. It also features prominently in most films dealing with autobiography, nostalgia, and literary adaptation. In the title sequence from The Ice Storm (1997) Ang Lee uses voice over to situate the plot in time and to introduce the subject matter (i.e., the American family in the 1970s), while also giving an indication of his main character’s ideas and general culture.

While a very common and useful device, voice over is an often abused technique. Over dependence on voice over to vent a character’s thoughts can be interpreted as a telling signal of a director’s lack of creativity — or a training in literature and theater, rather than visual arts. But voice over can also be used in non literal or ironic ways, as when the words a character speaks do not seem to match the actions he/she performs. Some avant garde films, for instance, make purposely disconcerting uses of voice over narration.

Question 350

SOUND QUALITY

Answer 350

Much like quality of the image, the aural properties of a sound — its timbre, volume, reverb, sustain, etc. — have a major effect on a film’s aesthetic. A film can register the space in which a sound is produced (its sound signature) or it can be otherwise manipulated for dramatic purposes. The recording of Orson Welles’ voice at the end of Touch of Evil (1958) adds a menacing reverb to his confession.

The mediation of Abbas Kiarostami’s voice through the walkie-talkie and the video quality of the image in the coda of Taste of Cherry (Ta’m e Guilass, Iran, 1997) underscore the reflexivity that is characteristic of his films.