Chapter 10A - Emotional Development Flashcards
EMOTION
An EMOTION is a complex, multidimensional and dynamic experience, which mediates the relationship between the individual and the environment.
Emotions are MULTIDIMENSIONAL - such dimensions are:
1) PHYSIOLOGICAL - specific bodily reactions triggered by the CNS, the ANS and the endocrine system.
2) COGNITIVE - evaluation and attribution of meaning to the reactions of the organism;
3) MOTIVATIONAL - regulation of behavior according to desires and aims;
4) COMMUNICATIVE - facial expressions and other non-verbal, universal and specific manifestations for each emotion;
5) SOCIAL - social rules and expectations regulate emotion expression.
Although emotion consists of more than communication, in infancy the COMMUNICATION aspect is at the forefront of emotion.
THEORIES of EMOTION
The field of emotion is still highly controversial, with scholars not agreeing on the number of existing emotional states, the development of emotion, and its relation with cognitive processes and physiological changes. Still, three major theories of emotion have been proposed:
1) The JAMES-LANGE THEORY of emotion maintains that
specific physiological arousal leads to emotional experience;
2) The CANNON-BARD THEORY of emotion argues that external stimulus triggers, simultaneously, both physiological arousal and emotional experience;
2) The SCHACHTER-SINGER TWO-FACTOR theory
of emotion maintains that generic physical arousal and cognitive appraisal of environmental factors lead to emotional responses.
The relation between EMOTION and BEHAVIOUR
EMOTION regulates BEHAVIOUR on two levels:
1) On the INDIVIDUAL LEVEL, for it gives us information about our psychophysiological reactions to life events and it motivates us to act upon that information;
2) On the INTERPERSONAL LEVEL - emotions, and facial expressions in particular, have a COMMUNICATIVE dimension and therefore a social function.
The BIOLOGICAL BASIS of EMOTIONS
CHARLES DARWIN was interested in the universal nature of facial emotional expressions and found similar expressions in individuals who were born blind. He then theorised emotional expressions as part of the hereditary behavioural repertoire of humans because of their strong adaptive value - facial expressions have an important communicative function which has aided survival of the species.
Modern research shows that emotions are linked with early developing regions of the human nervous system, such as the LIMBIC SYSTEM and the BRAINSTEM.
PAUL EKMAN showed the universality of emotional facial expression by observing members of several different societies - this is why Western observers have no difficulty in interpreting accurately the expressions of members of illiterate societies. He developed the FACIAL ACTION CODING SYSTEM (FACS), a coding system to evaluate the structure and muscle configuration corresponding to specific emotions - such technological developments increase the likelihood that emotional expressions - and therefore the underlying emotions - can be identified early in life.
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT - PRIMARY and SECONDARY EMOTIONS
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT takes place within the first 6 months of life.
The first emotions to appear are PRIMARY EMOTIONS, anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.
SECONDARY EMOTIONS - also called SELF-CONSCIOUS EMOTIONS - emerge later, usually between 18 and 24 months of life. These emotions - embarrassment, pride, shame guilt and jealousy - are more complex because they require (1) a sense of the self and (2) the understanding of social rules to follow - or break - and of the expectations to adhere to -or to ignore.
In other words, they require SELF-EVALUATION skills - the child must be able evaluate herself in terms of some desired social standard, rule or goal. Adults and other community members play an important role in providing behavioural standards, and through observation children discover when it is appropriate to experience these emotions.
The FUNCTIONALIST approach to EMOTIONS
The FUNCTIONALIST approach posits that EMOTIONS are RELATIONAL rather than strictly internal phenomena - emotional responses cannot be separated from the situations in which they are evoked. Many developmentalists view emotions as the result of individuals’ attempts to adapt to specific contextual demands - for example, emotional expressions serve the functions of signaling to others how one feels, regulating one’s own behavior, and playing important roles in social exchange.
Furthermore, according to this view emotions are linked with an individual’s goals - the specific nature of the goal can affect the experience of a given emotion.
EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE
EMOTIONAL COMPETENCE involves mastering a number of social skills, such as:
1) Awareness of one’s own emotional states;
2) Detecting others’ emotions - EMOTION UNDERSTANDING;
3) Appropriate use of emotion vocabulary;
4) EMPATHY - sensitivity toward others’ emotions;
5) Awareness of the difference between overt and internal emotional states;
6) Awareness of the impact of emotion expression on relationships;
7) Coping and self-regulatory skills - EMOTIONAL REGULATION
Emotionally competent children are more likely to effectively manage their emotions, show RESILIENCE - resistance to stress - in the face of stressful circumstances, and develop more positive relationships.
EMOTION UNDERSTANDING
At 6 months, infants can interpret their mother’s facial expressions to understand how to interpret a specific situation, a phenomenon known as SOCIAL REFERENCING.
At 2 years, they understand other people’s emotions and the events that evoked them.
EMOTION UNDERSTANDING in children is assessed by providing them with descriptions of different situations and asking them to describe how the characters depicted feel. Joy is usually the first emotion that children correctly identify - by 5 years of age, children usually get better at interpreting the negative situations
EMOTION REGULATION
Many researchers consider the development of EMOTION REGULATION in children to be fundamental to the development of social competence - to modulate their emotions, children need to:
1) Deal with frustrations, disappointments, hurt feelings;
2) Mask true emotions and control impulses;
3) Understand how their emotional states affect others;
4) Distinguish between emotional experience and expression;
5) Anticipate others’ behaviors.
Even very young children can modulate their emotions, but between 2 and 6 years, children learn how to:
1) Avoid emotionally charged information - for instance, by closing their eyes or turning away;
2) Use cognitive skills to reinterpret events, reassure and encourage themselves.
COPING with STRESS - the TRANSACTIONAL MODEL of STRESS
Even very young children can modulate their emotions, but between 2 and 6 years, children learn how to:
1) Avoid emotionally charged information - for instance, by closing their eyes or turning away;
2) Use cognitive skills to reinterpret events, reassure and encourage themselves.
COPING STRATEGIES are set of cognitions or behaviors used to cope with a stressful situation - there are two types of coping strategies:
- COGNITIVE-FOCUSED strategies, such as careful planning, anticipating stressful scenarios, or drawing on successful past experiences;
- EMOTION-FOCUSED strategies, such as seeking social support, acceptance of the stressful events, or seeking comfort in religion.
The TRANSACTIONAL MODEL of STRESS maintains that in the COGNITIVE APPRAISAL of a stressful event, individual asses whether they have the resources to deal with such event: if the answer is positive, so will be the stress experienced, and vice versa.
In children, the use of coping strategies is linked to cognitive level - the shift from spontaneous to intentional use of specific coping strategies occurs at around 6 years of age.
CULTURE and EMOTION
CULTURE can shape emotional behavior so that it adapts to parental expectations and practices.
There are considerable differences between social groups regarding what is considered acceptable in the context of emotional behavior - different cultures have developed different rules for the manifestation of emotions. This difference can be seen in how individualistic and collectivistic societies dictate different norms for emotion expression.
For instance, in collectivistic societies public expression of negative emotions - especially anger and sadness - is strongly discouraged - Japanese adults show their emotional states less frequently than Westerners, although in private they express them equally readily.
In Kenya, culture heavily shapes emotion expression - because children are soon put to the care of older siblings, a quiet child who can easily be cared for is desirable. Hence, Kenyan mothers are not very responsive to children’s vocalisation and engage in very short periods of play and conversation.
