Chapter 12

Question 1

Hasty generalization is …

Answer 1

a fallacy because a single instance doesn’t necessarily prove a general rule.

Question 2

____ is a fallacy because a single instance doesn’t necessarily prove a general rule.

Answer 2

Hasty generalization is a fallacy because a single instance doesn’t necessarily prove a general rule.

Question 3

When considering generalizations: If l say that all athletes are dumb, and you point out that the varsity quarterback is getting excellent grades, you have proved me wrong. However, a single positive instance…

Answer 3

does not prove that a generalization is true. Equally the fact that one athlete is a weak student doesn’t prove that all of them are.

Question 4

the method of induction by _____ is appropriate to use when we are dealing with small classes—an author ‘s complete works , the members of a family, the clothes in your closet —where we know something about each member individually.

Answer 4

the method of induction by complete enumeration

Question 5

A _____ is a deductive argument with two premises, in which the premises and the conclusion are categorical propositions.

Answer 5

categorical syllogism

Question 6

A _____ (Greek: “conclusion, inference”) is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two or more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true.

Answer 6

syllogism

Question 7

What are the Three Rules for Generalizing?

Answer 7

1. The sample should be sufficiently numerous and various.
2. We should look for disconfirming as well as confirming instances of a generalization.
3. We should consider whether a link between S and Pis plausible in light of other knowledge we possess.

Question 8

The following is an example of what type of physiological reasoning:

When we are angry at someone, our minds tend to multiply examples of how that person has wronged or offended us and to forget the other times when the person was fair or kind.

Answer 8

confirmation bias, the tendency to look for and give weight to evidence supporting a conclusion while ignoring, downplaying, or failing to seek evidence against it.

Question 9

—– is the tendency to look for and give weight to evidence supporting a conclusion while ignoring, downplaying, or failing to seek evidence against it.

Answer 9

confirmation bias

Question 10

confirmation bias

Answer 10

the tendency to look for and give weight to evidence supporting a conclusion while ignoring, downplaying, or failing to seek evidence against it.

Question 11

The following is an example of what type of physiological reasoning:

People tend to rely on sources of news - television or radio stations, Web sites, newspapers, etc.- that share their political orientation, rather than seeking news and ideas that challenge their views.

Answer 11

confirmation bias

Question 12

A concept is an idea; a word is the linguistic vehicle we
use to express the idea. And the class of things that a concept stands for are called the \_\_\_\_\_. The \_\_\_\_ of DOG, for example, are all the individual dogs in the world.

Answer 12

Referents

Question 13

Generalizing is an effort to identify connections among traits. But the term connection is pretty vague. In most cases, we are talking about _____

Answer 13

causality

Question 14

Causality

Answer 14

generalizing in order to identify connections or causalities amongst traits

Question 15

______ may involve interactions among things: collisions between air masses produce rain, a lighted match will set paper on fire. Or it may be a connection between the properties of an object and the way it acts: Uncommunicative people don ‘t make friends easily, a car’s design affects its performance , a charged particle will
attract or repel other charged particles.

Answer 15

causality

Question 16

Name two factors of causality?

Answer 16

Cause of an event or cause of a property

Question 17

We study causal relationships by trying to identify the factors that are _____ and/or _____ for the Effect we want to explain.

Answer 17

necessary
and/or
sufficient

Question 18

What’s wrong with post hoc fallacy?

Answer 18

that the assumption that a preceded E, therefore a must have caused E. The fact that a came first is certainly relevant, but all by itself it gives us no reason to think
that a was either necessary or sufficient for E.

Question 19

The nineteenth-century philosopher John Stuart Mill formulated several methods for establishing evidence of a causal connection. They are known as the methods of 1.____, 2. ____, 3. ____, and 4._____

Answer 19

1. agreement
2. difference
3. concomitant variations
4. residues

Question 20

If a detective is trying to solve a series of murders asks whether the victims had something in common. John Stuart Mill would have called this technique the method of ____.

Answer 20

agreement

Question 21

If your car makes a funny noise when you accelerate, and you take your foot off the pedal to see whether the noise goes away, John Stuart Mill would have called this technique the method of ______.

Answer 21

difference

Question 22

inductive argument

Answer 22

an argument that attempts to show that its conclusion is supported by the premises even though the conclusion amplifies - or it goes beyond - what the premises state.

Question 23

_____ is an argument that attempts to show that its conclusion is supported by the premises even though the conclusion amplifies - or it goes beyond - what the premises state.

Answer 23

inductive argument

Question 24

_______ an item that belongs to a given class and possesses the trait attributed to the class by a given generalization.

Answer 24

positive instance

Question 25

positive instance

Answer 25

an item that belongs to a given class and possesses the trait attributed to the class by a given generalization.

Question 26

____ an item that belongs to a given class and does not possess the trait attributed to the class by a given generalization.

Answer 26

negative instance

Question 27

negative instance

Answer 27

an item that belongs to a given class and does not possess the trait attributed to the class by a given generalization.

Question 28

method of agreement

Answer 28

a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor common to a variety of cases in which the effect occurs.

Question 29

______ a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor common to a variety of cases in which the effect occurs.

Answer 29

method of agreement

Question 30

method of difference

Answer 30

a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor in whose presence the effect occurs and in whose absence the effect does not occur, all other factors remaining constant.

Question 31

If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have every circumstance save one in common, that one occurring only in the former; the circumstance in which alone the two instances differ, is the effect, or cause, or a necessary part of the cause, of the phenomenon.

Answer 31

method of difference

Question 32

a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor in whose presence the effect occurs and in whose absence the effect does not occur, all other factors remaining constant.

Answer 32

method of difference

Question 33

a method of identifying a cause of an effect by using the methods of agreement and difference in combination

Answer 33

joint method (agreement and difference)

Question 34

method of concomitant variations

Answer 34

a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor whose variations are correlated with variations in the effect, all other factors remaining constant.

Question 35

a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating a factor whose variations are correlated with variations in the effect, all other factors remaining constant.

Answer 35

method of concomitant variations

Question 36

method of residues

Answer 36

residues—a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating that portion of the effect not explained by known causal relationships.

Question 37

____ a method of identifying a cause of an effect by isolating that portion of the effect not explained by known causal relationships.

Answer 37

method of residues