Chapter 15 - Peer Relationships

Question 1

PEER RELATIONSHIPS in childhood

Answer 1

In EARLY CHILDHOOD a shift from dyadic to multiple interactions occur - in kindergarten, children encounter an environment full of peers and teachers for the first time. Children prefer peers who are similar in behaviour, age and gender - their relationships are reciprocal, but mostly volatile.

In LATE CHILDHOOD and EARLY ADOLESCENCE, friendships became more selective, as children develop a greater appreciation of social rules and the ability to consider other people’s points of view - in this years, group friendships are important, as children learn to deal with issues of social status, peer rejections and peer conflict.

Question 2

PEER STATUS - definition

Answer 2

PEER STATUS - the social position an individual occupies within a group - is closely related to SOCIAL STRUCTURES, complex organisations of relationships among individuals which emerge naturally within groups. Status is assessed on two dimensions:

1) DOMINANCE - power over other group members - contributes to the functioning of human social groups at large, including groups of children. A reliable predictor of individual dominance within a group are good CONFLICT and RECONCILIATION skills. EARLY CHILDHOOD is a critical period in development for children to negotiate their social position with others - this is why BULLYING peaks in middle school.
2) POPULARITY, whose importance noticeably increase during middle childhood, is the extent to which children are liked or disliked by their peer group.

Question 3

PEER STATUS - assessment and profiles

Answer 3

PEER STATUS is assessed by means of several assessment methods, such as:

1) Teacher nominations;
2) Self-reports;
3) Behavioural observation;
4) PEER NOMINATIONS, in which children are asked to rate how much they like or dislike each of their classmates.

Through data analysis of peer nomination studies, researchers have defined 4 peer statuses:

1) POPULAR CHILDREN receive the highest rankings - they are skilled at initiating and maintaining positive relationships, compromising, and negotiating when facing peer conflict.
2) REJECTED CHILDREN receive the lowest rankings - they are shy or aggressive. Their status can be self-perpetuating, for their awareness of social failure often leads them to misinterpret social cues in a negative fashion;
3) NEGLECTED CHILDREN receive low rankings - they are not sociable, but they are not shy nor aggressive. These children are simply less concerned about social status and their sociability tends to improve over time.
4) CONTROVERSIAL CHILDREN often receive both positive and negative nominations - they tend to be aggressive, but still show good social and cognitive skills.

Question 4

BULLYING

Answer 4

BULLYING is defined as unprovoked aggression intended to harm, intimidate, or dominate individuals who are unable to properly defend themselves - individuals who engage in bullying behaviour usually do so to gain higher peer status. Bullying can be psychical or verbal, and cyberbullying is an increasingly common form of aggression- gender differences have been found: boys are more likely to be attacked physically, whereas girls experience more verbal aggressions.

BULLIES share some common characteristics, such as:

• a lack of empathy;
• MORAL DISENGAGEMENT;
• good social information processing skills - they can identify the victims’ weaknesses and use them in their favour;
• overly permissive or authoritarian parents.

VICTIMS of bullying tend to easily lose their temper and act in dependent and immature ways - they show low-self esteem, social anxiety and poor self regulatory skills. Peer victimisation can cause depression, self-harm and suicidal behaviour.
Bullied children are either:
- PASSIVE VICTIMS are often children of OVER-PROTECTIVE and low-conflict PARENTS - in the face of social conflict, they are helpless because of their poor social maturity.
- AGGRESSIVE VICTIMS respond violently to bullying - they often are children of AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS with poor communication.

Question 5

Approaches to BULLYING INTERVENTIONS

Answer 5

To intervene it is useful to consider the BULLY CIRCLE, which offers a comprehensive perspective of the situation - in addition to bully and victims, this model includes defenders, bystanders, and supporters of the bully. Interventions usually employ an holistic approach to the bullying environment by both acting on aggressive behaviours and promoting defensiveness. Bystanders do not intervene either because they engage in DIFFUSION of RESPONSIBILITY or are afraid to become targets themselves.

A common approach to anti-bullying intervention is BROFENBRENNER’ SOCIOECOLOGICAL approach, which works on multiple levels:

• at the INDIVIDUAL LEVEL, instructors focus on emotional and social competence;
• at the ORGANISATIONAL level, one of the most useful interventions is the WHOLE SCHOOL APPROACH: it includes a formalised school policy against bullying, training for teachers, clear procedures to address bullying episodes, and structured support for victims such as counselling.
• at the INSTITUTIONAL LEVEL, it involves informative interventions from experts - such as psychologists and postal police officers.