Chapter 17 - Ethnic Identity

Question 1

ETHNIC IDENTITY

Answer 1

ETHNIC IDENTITY is the subjective sense of belonging to an ethnic group, and the feelings that accompany this sense of group membership. It has a COGNITIVE dimension - the awareness of belonging to a specific ethnic group - and an EMOTIONAL dimension - attachment to such group. These two components are not always aligned, for social acceptance or discrimination influence emotional attachment to a group.

Question 2

ETHNIC IDENTITY in MINORITIES

Answer 2

The development of an ethnic identity is a normative process, but MINORITIES experience a particular developmental course due to:

1) Integration of two different ethnic identities, namely that given by the culture of origin and that of the mainstream culture. If these two identities are very different - if, for example, one capitalises on religious belief and the other one does not - conflict may arise;
2) Prejudice, discrimination and low socioeconomic status (SES) typically associated with minorities.

Question 3

ETHNIC IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT - PHINNEY’s model

Answer 3

PHINNEY - expanding on Marcia’s work on identity development - devised a model of ETHNIC IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT according to which the process is divided in 3 stages:

1) LACK OF EXPLORATION in PREADOLESCENCE - in this phase, the concepts of ethnicity are not actively explored and the values of majority groups are passively accepted.
2) SEARCHING for ETHNIC IDENTITY in EARLY ADOLESCENCE - in this stage, individuals try to understand what the concept of ethnicity means to themselves. Newly developed cognitive skills allow for peer comparison, which raises doubts about previous attitudes. If the adolescent gets to know the history and the problems associated with her ethnic group, greater political awareness and resentment are possible.
3) ETHNIC IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT in LATE ADOLESCENCE - ideally, individuals develop a clear and certain feeling of belonging to an ethnic group, internalising they ethnic identity. Through exploration of one’s own cultural roots, insecurities are resolved and commitments to such identity are made.

Question 4

CLARK and CLARK’s DOLL TEST

Answer 4

CLARK and CLARK’s DOLL TEST is a landmark study on ethnic identity development. Researchers proposed to 3 to 7 years old - African American and European children - a black doll and a white doll and asked several questions like “which doll would you like to play with?” or “which doll would you want to be?”.
Children of both ethnic groups tended to attribute positive characteristics - pretty, beautiful - to the white doll and negative ones - bad, ugly - to the dark one. This shows that children internalise ethnic rules and stereotypes at an early age.

Results of this experiment are still controversial: some scholars argue that children’s assertions represent awareness of social group hierarchies but do not necessarily translate into a negative self-esteem.

Question 5

ETHNIC IDENTITY and PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

Answer 5

ETHNIC IDENTITY has a strong impact on MENTAL HEALTH - high levels of ethnic identity are associated with higher self-esteem, lower involvement in risky behaviour and less vulnerability to eating disorders.
This could be due to the fact that a strong ethic identity provides a PROTECTIVE FACTOR in the relationship between discrimination and mental health - discrimination does not affect individuals with strong ethnic identities because they are confident in their skin and, therefore, resilient to stress.

Question 6

PARENTING and ETHNIC IDENTITY

Answer 6

PARENTING influences ETHNIC IDENTITY development because caregivers modulate ETHNIC SOCIALISATION, which consists of information and experience provided to children about their ethnic identity. ETHNIC SOCIALISATION include:

1) CULTURAL SOCIALISATION - children’s exposure to their own cultural and ethnic background;
2) PREPARATION for BIAS - warnings of possible discrimination or unfair treatment;
3) PROMOTION of MISTRUST - recommended caution towards members of other ethnic groups;
4) EGALITARIANISM - emphasis on equity and not on ethnic differences - these messages could potentially downplay ethnic differences and fail to provide sufficient information for adequate ethnic identity development.

Children whose parents promote ETHNIC PRIDE have better cognitive and problem-solving skills and fewer emotional and behavioural problems.