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psychology > Chapter 2 > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Scientific Method

-What is it?

A

involves a set of procedures used for gathering and interpreting objective information

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2
Q

What are the 3 goals of the scientific method?

A

To describe, to explain/understand, and to predict

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3
Q

Describe the scientific method (4 things)

A

It follows strict rules, it is empirical, it is systematic, and it is often rigorous

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4
Q

What does the scientific method allow you to do? Or what does it do?

A

It limits sources of error.

It yields dependable generalizations and it allows you to draw conclusions with maximum objectivity

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5
Q

What are the 7 steps in the scientific method?

A
  1. Initial observation or question (gather info)
  2. form a hypothesis
  3. Design the study
  4. Analyze the data and draw conclusions
  5. Report the findings
  6. Consider open questions
  7. Act on open questions
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6
Q

What is a theory?

A

it is an organized set of concepts that explains a phenomenon or set of phenomena. It is a tentative explanation of facts and relationships that underlie observed events.

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7
Q

Theories are based on determinism. What is determinism?

A

It is that all events are based on specific causal factors

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8
Q

Why/how do psychologists use theories?

A

they use them to formulate new research questions. This is based on the idea that lawful patterns of relationships can be explained by specific causal factors.

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9
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A tentative and testable statement about the relationship between the causes and consequences of behaviour.
Hypotheses are generally formed in an IF-THEN relationship

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10
Q

What do you do with a hypothesis?

A

You do research in order to verify the prediction. This is done using the scientific method.

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11
Q

Laws of Perception

A

When you look at something the mind actively constructs reality and gives meaning towards it.

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12
Q

Name one research challenge. Why are these challenges important?

A

Biases are a challenge in research. Being objective is important to consider when conducting and evaluating research because our biases act as filters for information.

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13
Q

What is an observer bias?

A

It is a distortion of evidence because of the personal motives and expectations of the viewer.

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14
Q

Name two techniques to minimize observer bias.

A

Standardization and Operational definitions.

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15
Q

What is standardization?

A

Standardization is a technique that helps to minimize observer bias by using uniform and consistent procedures in all phases of data collection.

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16
Q

What are operational definitions?

A

Operational definitions a technique that helps to minimize observer bias by defining a concept in terms of specific operations or procedures used to measure it. It standardizes the meaning of concepts and applies to all variables in a study.

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17
Q

In a formal experiment there are experimental and control groups. What are these?

A

Experimental participants partake in the treatment, and control groups do not. All other conditions are held constant for both groups, and then the results between groups are compared.

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18
Q

What are the two main types of research variables? (factors that vary in amount or kind)

A

Independent Variable (IV) and Dependent Variable (DV)

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19
Q

What is the difference between an Independent and Dependent variable.

A

IV- a factor that is manipulated by the researcher. The causal part of the relationship

DV- a factor that the experimenter measures to determine the impact of the IV. The effect part of the relationship.

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20
Q

What are Experimental Methods/ why are they used?

A

Procedures used to make strong causal claims about the impact of the IV (manipulated) on the DV (measured).
Experiments allow for causal statements, but alternative explanations may exist.

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21
Q

Alternative Explanations in Experiments

A

confounding variables can influence interpretation of the results

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22
Q

What is a confounding variable? Why are they important to eliminate?

A

It is a variable other than what the experimenter purposely introduced that may change the participant’s behaviour. They can add confusion and put interpretation of the data at risk

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23
Q

Other confounds in experiments- What is expectancy effect?

A

This occurs when a researcher subtly communicates to participants the behaviours that he or she expects to find, producing the desired reaction. This can often be unintentional, and can trigger the desired response instead of the independent variable

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24
Q

Other confounds in experiments- What is the placebo effect?

A

this occurs when the experimental participants change their behaviour in the absence of any kind of experimental manipulation. The participant’s expectations or beliefs about what is suppose to happen may bring about behavioural change

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25
Q

Name two types of confounds in experiments.

A

Variable confound,
The expectancy effect,
The Placebo effect,

26
Q

What are control procedures/what do they do?

A

They are methods researchers use to try to counteract confounds. It is to hold constant all variables and conditions other than those related to the hypothesis being tested.

27
Q

Give examples of things a researcher might try to control. (controlling confounds)

A

ex. Temperature, instructions, time of day.

28
Q

What is the controlling confound called a “double-blind control”?

A

an experimental procedure in which both the experimenter and the subject are unaware as to who received the treatment

29
Q

What is the controlling confound called a “placebo control”?

A

The inclusion of an experimental condition in which the treatment is not administered.

30
Q

What is a between subjects research design?

A
  • Different groups of participants are assigned experimental conditions of to a control condition. There is emphasis on random assignment to equate groups on all factors except experimental
31
Q

What is the within-subjects research design?

A

-Each participant is his or her own control

32
Q

What is the population?

A

the entire set of individuals to which generalizations will be made based on an experimental sample

33
Q

What is a sample?

A

a subset of the population selected as participants in an experiment

34
Q

What is a representative sample?

A

A subset that closely matches the characteristics of the population being studied.

35
Q

What are the 3 different groups sizes?

A

Population, sample, representative sample

36
Q

What is the correlation method? How/when is it used?

A

it is used to determine the extent to which two variables are related. It is used when variables can’t be manipulated

37
Q

Give an example of when you would use a correlational method

A

The relationship between child abuse and the development of mental illness. Is there one? There may be one, but it does NOT mean that the development of mental illness is caused by child abuse, only that they correlate.

38
Q

What is the correlation coefficient? What do the number mean?

A

The correlation coefficient (r) shows the degree of relationships measured. It measures this. There is a positive correlation if the number is between (0.01 and 1.0), no correlation if the coefficient is 0, and a negative correlation is between (-.01 and -1.0)

39
Q

How do you determine if there is a strong correlation?

A

The higher the number to 1, the stronger the positive correlation. The closer the number to -1, the stronger the negative correlation. If the correlation is 0 that means that there is no correlation.

40
Q

Name 3 disadvantages of correlational studies.

A
  • you can’t assume cause-effect relationships exist
  • the relationship may be due to a third unmeasured variable
  • shows an association, NOT a cause
41
Q

What are two ways to measure accuracy?

A

Reliability and validity

42
Q

What is reliability in data?

A

the degree to which a test produces similar scores each time it is used (stability, consistency)

43
Q

What is validity in data?

A

the degree to which a test measures what it was intended to measure (conceptual)

44
Q

Explain the importance of reliability.

A
  • means the study was done consistently over repeated applications
  • the consistency is critically important in determining whether the test can provide good measurement (ex. intelligence test)
45
Q

What is it to test-retest reliability?

A

it is usually measured by computing the correlation coefficient between scores of two administrators. ie. two researchers try out the same method

46
Q

Explain the importance of validity.

A

-this refers to measuring what we intend to measure

47
Q

What is predictive validity?

A

the extent to which scores on the scale are related to, and predictive of, some future outcome that is practical utility.
ex. higher scores on the SAT test are positively correlated with higher GPAs and vise versa, then the SAT is said to have predictive validity

48
Q

What are some different types of measures used by psychologists to obtain data?

A
  • self-report measures

- behavioural measures (archival data and case studies)

49
Q

Talk about self-report measures, give examples

A

they involve verbal or written answers to questions that the researcher poses (participant’s own observations).
Generally they come in the form of questionnaires or interviews asking direct or open ended questions.

50
Q

Name a problem to do with self-reports

A

Social desirability, and making ones self look better than you are.

51
Q

What are behavioural measures?

A

they involve the overt actions and reactions that are systematically observed and recorded.

52
Q

What are the two main types of observations in behavioural measures? What is the potential problem?

A
  • Direct observations
  • naturalistic observations

-there can be a problem with observer bias

53
Q

What are archival studies?

A
  • they involve information taken from existing records (eg. birth/death, weather reports, legal problems, voting, attendance)
  • they are a form of behavioural measure
  • they rely on other’s observations
54
Q

What does a case study involve?

A
  • an intensive observation of a particular individual (multiple domains)
  • they can be conducted with small groups of people
  • more common in clinical settings
55
Q

What are some things to remember regarding ethics in research? (3)

A
  • respect for basic rights of humans and animals
  • all research proposals are reviewed by special committees
  • must follow guidelines established by research and professional organizations
56
Q

What is informed consent regarding studies?

A

the research participants are asked to sign statements indicating that they have been informed about the potential risks and benefits of the study and consent to participate

57
Q

What is risk/gain assessment?

A

risks to participants must be minimized, especially in studies with personal consequences to behaviour

58
Q

What is intentional deception? When is intentional deception wrong?

A
  • it is the misleading to someone as to the purpose or goal of the research
  • sometimes it is necessary to avoid getting biased results
  • Code of Ethics states it can only be used when there is no other alternative and the research contributes to science
59
Q

What is a debriefing?

A
  • participants involved must be provided with as much info as possible about the study (eg. purpose, hypothesis, anticipated results, expected benefits)
  • there is the option to be contacted when the results of the study are released
60
Q

What do people do about animal research?

A
  • should they be used in psychological and medical research
  • benefits of animal breakthroughs vs controversy of animal models for human behaviour
  • special animal care ethics guidelines exist
61
Q

How does one become a wiser research consumer?

A
  • be a critical thinker

- know how to evaluate claims about what research shows (general rules pg. 42 of textbook)

psychology (2 decks)

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