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History: Russia > Chapter 2: Economy & Society > Flashcards

Chapter 2: Economy & Society Flashcards

1
Q

What were the main aims of industrialisation under Alexander II?

A

Modernise the military after Crimea
Attract Foreign investment
Catch up with the West
Get peasants into factories to control them

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2
Q

What was the policy surrounding factories & control?

A

New work discipline

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3
Q

Who was Mikhail Reutern?

A

Finance Minister 1862-78

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4
Q

How much railway was built 1862-1878?

A

2194 miles in 1862 to 13,979 miles in 1878 (about 2,000 to 14,000)

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5
Q

What was the benefit of the railway expansion?

A

Allowed heavy industry to ‘break bulk’ (transport lots of materials) at speed, and gave the industrial sector a significant boost.

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6
Q

What were the state’s policies under Alexander II to attract foreign investment?

A

Tax exemptions, issuing of government bonds, monopoly concessions.

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7
Q

How much railway was in private hands by 1880?

A

94%

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8
Q

Who was Nikolay Bunge?

A

Finance minister 1882-86
Also an economics professor at Kiev University

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9
Q

Why were Reutern’s efforts at industrial advance cut short?

A

Russo-Turkish War

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10
Q

What amendments did Bunge make as finance minister in 1882?

A

Created Peasant Land Bank, abolished the salt tax & poll tax, moved towards greater state control of railways

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11
Q

Why was Bunge removed from his post?

A

Alexander III blamed him for a fall in the value of the Rouble in 1886

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12
Q

When was the Peasant land bank created?

A

1883

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13
Q

When was the Salt Tax abolished?

A

1881

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14
Q

When was the Poll tax abolished?

A

1886

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15
Q

Who was Ivan Vyshnegradskii?

A

Finance minister 1887-92

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16
Q

What were Vyshnegradskii’s economic policies?

A

Balance the government budget while making a surplus of income
Impose the Mendeleev Tariff to raise money
Export grain to raise money

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17
Q

What was the result of Vyshnegradskii’s policies?

A

1891 famine because he exported all the grain (silly)

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18
Q

Who was Sergei Witte?

A

Finance minister 1893-1903

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19
Q

What was the main part of the russian economy in 1893?

A

Agriculture

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20
Q

What was the Great Spurt?

A

The huge move towards industrialisation under Witte

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21
Q

What were Witte’s main policies?

A

Take out foreign loans, raise taxes & interest rates
Invest heavily in industry
Tie the rouble to the gold standard in 1897

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22
Q

What was the effect of the Great Spurt on industrial income?

A

Income earned from industry shot up from 42m roubles in 1893 to 161m by 1897

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23
Q

What was Nicholas II’s approach to the economy?

A

Less protectionist than Alexander III, aimed to attract foreign experts similar to Alex II

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24
Q

Why was Witte dismissed in 1903?

A

He opposed Nicholas’s expansionist foreign policy on the grounds of cost

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25
Q

Who worked with Witte as Prime Minister 1905-1913?

A

Pyotr Stolypin was finance minister

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26
Q

What were the results of Stolypin & Witte’s economic policies?

A

GNP increased by 3.5% a year 1909-13

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27
Q

What happened to the Russian economy during WW1?

A

It fell apart - railway system was inefficient and armaments could not be funded

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28
Q

What was Lenin’s approach to dealing with the costs of war in 1917?

A

State Capitalism - state controlled the economy

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29
Q

What were the 3 policies that introduced State Capitalism in 1917-18?

A

Decree on Land
Decree on Worker’s Control
formation of the SEC (Supreme Economic Council)

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30
Q

What was the Decree on Land?

A

Passed in 1917, allowed division of private landholdings to be handed over to peasants

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31
Q

What was the Decree on Worker’s Control?

A

Passed in 1918, Worker’s committees were given extra powers to run factories.

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32
Q

What was the SEC?

A

Supreme Economic Council, ran all the nationalised industries owned by the government

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33
Q

What were the economic effects of the civil war?

A

Production of coal fell from 29 million tons in 1913 to 8.9 million in 1921.
The rouble by October 1920 was worth 1% of its value in 1917.

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34
Q

What was War Communism?

A

Larger enterprises were nationalised
Partial militarisation of labour
Forced recquisition of agricultural produce

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35
Q

What were the effects of war communism?

A

grain was taken from rural areas to feed soldiers & workers - starvation in rural areas

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36
Q

What was the NEP?

A

Passed in 1921, the NEP denationalised smaller enterprise, removed restrictions on private sale of goods & services, and ended grain requisitioning.

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37
Q

What were the effects of the NEP?

A

Industry output increased rapidly
food prices fell rapidly due to surplus production

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38
Q

What was a ‘nepman’?

A

A trader who emerged as a result of the NEP

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39
Q

What were the 2 aims of Stalinist industrial policy?

A

To launch a war against Tsarist past
To prepare for conflict with the enemy (the West)

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40
Q

What was Stalin’s preferred method of industrial growth?

A

5 Year Plans

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41
Q

What was Stalin’s general approach to economic growth?

A

Increased state control & centralised planning

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42
Q

What was the First Five-Year plan focused on?

A

Heavy Industry

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43
Q

What was the Second Five-Year plan focused on?

A

More Heavy industry but there was also electricity

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44
Q

What was the Third Five-year plan focused on?

A

More heavy industry but also armaments

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45
Q

What was the fourth five-year plan focused on?

A

Rapid economic recovery post-war

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46
Q

What was the fifth five-year plan focused on?

A

Agricultural equipment

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47
Q

What was the sixth 5-year plan focused on?

A

Consumer goods

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48
Q

What was the seventh 5-year plan focused on?

A

A range of goods (more consumer goods)

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49
Q

What was the increase in coal production from 1928-1960?

A

35.5m tonnes in 1928, 510m tonnes in 1960

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50
Q

What was the increase in steel production from 1928-60?

A

4.3m tonnes in 1928, 65.3 m in 1960

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51
Q

What was Khrushchev’s approach to economic growth?

A

Continue with Stalin’s policies & make more 5-year plans

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52
Q

Which 5-year plan was abandoned after 2 years?

A

the sixth

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53
Q

What was done about the issue of peasant land ownership?

A

Consistent amounts of nothing by all leaders

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54
Q

What did Alexander III set up to help agriculture?

A

Ministry for agriculture

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55
Q

What were the Stolypin reforms?

A

Reforms to the agricultural system, where unused or poorly used land was given to the land bank & peasants farming strips were allowed to consolidate these into smallholdings.

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56
Q

Why was there mass dekulakisation under the Bolsheviks?

A

They were consistently blamed for grain shortages

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57
Q

What were some of the challenges kulaks faced under Lenin?

A

They had to pay higher taxes
Their children were refused entry to state schools
They were disenfranchised

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58
Q

What was collectivisation?

A

The policy of bringing a number of small farms together to make a bigger farm, in order to feed the urban proletariat

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59
Q

Why did Stalin push for mass collectivisation in 1927-28?

A

He wanted to eradicate the NEP entirely

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60
Q

What happened to the kulaks under Stalin?

A

Between 1928-30, between 1-3m kulak families were deported.
Around 30,000 were shot

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61
Q

What were Kolkhozy?

A

Farms owned by the state, but worked on by farmers not in the employ of the state

62
Q

What were Sovkhozy?

A

Farms owned by the state worked on by state-employed farmers

63
Q

What were the MTS?

A

Motor Tractor stations
Originally just for distributing equipment, they now also distributed seed, collected grain, and decided what produce farmers could keep for their own food.

64
Q

What disrupted collectivisation 1932-34?

A

Famines

65
Q

By 1941, what percentage of peasant households worked on collectives?

A

98%

66
Q

When was the mir abolished?

A

1930

67
Q

What were Khrushchev’s main agricultural policies?

A

Abolish the MTS
Change the role of the ministry for agriculture
Virgin Lands Scheme

68
Q

When was the Virgin Lands scheme?

A

1954

69
Q

What was the Virgin Lands scheme?

A

A scheme which tried to give peasants new land to cultivate

70
Q

How much land had been given to production of wheat in 1950, and how much by 1964?

A

96 million acres 1950, 165m by 1964

71
Q

What showed the Virgin Lands scheme to be badly implemented?

A

The famine 1962-63 due to bad weather

72
Q

Why was the Virgin Lands scheme a failure?

A

Corners were cut - cheap fertiliser, little done to counter soil erosion, etc

73
Q

What was grain production in 1963 compared with 1962?

A

‘62 - 140m tonnes
‘63 - 107m

74
Q

What happened to the population of Russia during the period?

A

Increased significantly

75
Q

When was the first official census taken in Russia?

A

1897

76
Q

What was the period that saw the biggest growth spurt of population?

A

1870-1914 (Tsarist rule)

77
Q

Why was there a growth in population 1870-1914?

A

Rapid industrialisation led to higher wages and more stable employment, so this led to greater birth rates.

78
Q

What was the main factor stimulating urbanisation?

A

Industrialisation

79
Q

When was civil marraige for peasants introduced?

A

1917 (post-October)

80
Q

What did Stalin do to try and increase birth rates?

A

Set up ‘Distinctions to Mother Heroines’ scheme in 1944, which gave mothers with 10 or more children money rewards.

81
Q

When was abortion legalised in Russia?

A

1926

82
Q

What was the structure of society like up until the October Revolution?

A

The Tsar
The Nobility
The clergy & the middle classes - merchants, petty commercial classes
The lower classes - peasants, settlers, foreigners

83
Q

What was the social structure like under communism?

A

There was no class-based society in theory.
In practice, there was still heirarchy amongst workers with better technical skills.

84
Q

How mucn difference was there between the societal structure of communists vs the structure under the Tsars?

A

Not a huge difference

85
Q

What was education like before 1864?

A

Provision of elementary schools was through wealthy individuals or the church

86
Q

What was Alexander II’s education reform?

A

He placed the responsibility for administration & expansion of primary schools in the hands of school boards, which in turn were run by the Zemstva.

87
Q

What was Nicholas II’s education plan?

A

The first Duma announced a plan for universal primary education to be achieved by 1922, althoguh WW1 put a stop to the plan.

88
Q

What was the Communist approach to education & schools?

A

Church schools were handed over to the local Soviets in 1918
Attendance at primary school was mandatory up to the age of 12 from 1930

89
Q

How many more pupils attended primary school due to Stalin’s policy of mandatory attendance?

A

1929 - 8m pupils
1930 - 18m pupils

90
Q

What did Alexander II do to secondary education?

A

Allowed the continuation of gymnasia (grammar schools) alongside new gymnasia, which taught a mixture of academic & vocational subjects.

91
Q

What was the growth in secondary school attendance 1855-65?

A

Attendance doubled

92
Q

What did Alexander III do to secondary schools?

A

Banned lower class children from secondary schooling

93
Q

What did the Bolsheviks do to secondary schools?

A

Lenin scrapped gymnasia in favour of skill-based polytechnics

94
Q

What did Stalin do to secondary education in 1930?

A

Returned to mixed provision

95
Q

What did Khrushchev do to secondary education?

A

He scrapped all school fees and returned to Lenin’s policy of skills-based education

96
Q

What did the statute for universities do in 1863?

A

It gave them a larger degree of autonomy, but the Ministry of education still had the final say on what was taught & how it was taught.

97
Q

At the end of the 19th century, what was the relative proportion of population in urban & rural areas?

A

Urban - 15%
Rural - 85%

98
Q

Why was there a rapid increase in public health problems during mass urbanisation?

A

Housing was built quickly and cheaply - buildings had poor sanitation
There was lots of overcrowding

99
Q

How many towns had access to electricity in 1914?

A

74

100
Q

How many towns had access to gas in 1914?

A

35

101
Q

How many towns had a sewage system in 1914?

A

38

102
Q

When was the cholera outbreak in St. Petersburg?

A

1910

103
Q

How many people did the St. Petersburg cholera outbreak kill?

A

around 100,000

104
Q

Why were worker ‘barracks’ built?

A

Factories were nearly always located on the edges of cities

105
Q

What reforms to housing came about as a result of the Bolshevik Revolution?

A

Houses were seized from private owners and redistributed by local soviets. However, this had very limited improvement.

106
Q

What did Stalin do to housing & living conditions?

A

Allocated space rather than rooms to individuals & families

107
Q

In the mid-1930s, what percentage of the population was living in one room shared by two or more families?

A

25%

108
Q

What was the fall in living space 1905-1935?

A

1905 - 8.5m^3
1935 - 5.8m^3

109
Q

How many russians became homeless as a result of WW2?

A

over 25 million

110
Q

What was Khrushchev’s approach to housing?

A

Abandoned communal living

111
Q

What happened to the housing stock 1955-64?

A

It doubled

112
Q

What was the living condition of the average peasant like across the period?

A

Consistently poor - a single-room wooden hut

113
Q

What did Stalin do to peasant housing?

A

Build special housing blocks on the periphery of collective farms

114
Q

What did Khrushchev do to change peasant housing?

A

Establish micro-districts, where farms had their own little towns with everything the workers would need or want.

115
Q

When were the major famines across the period?

A

1891
1914-17
1918
1921
1932-34
1947

116
Q

What were the main reasons for frequent famine?

A

Overreliance on grain
The restrictive practices of the mir - demanded growing of specific crops
Severe weather conditions
Government policy - collectivisation

117
Q

What did Alex II do to try and combat famine?

A

Put the Zemstva in charge of emergency measures to tackle famine

118
Q

Why did the 1891 famine take place?

A

Poor weather & Vyshnegradskii exporting all the grain

119
Q

How many people died in the 1891 famine?

A

350,000

120
Q

How did Alex III try to deal with the 1891 famine?

A

Ban selling of excess grain and fund emergency help

121
Q

What caused the famine of 1914-17?

A

WW1

122
Q

What was the main effect of food shortage in WW1?

A

People became anti-war: more willing to overthrow Nicholas

123
Q

What caused the famine of 1918?

A

Peasants were hoarding & land was lost to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

124
Q

What did the Bolsheviks do to combat the famine in 1918?

A

Introduce Grain recquisitioning

125
Q

What was the famine in 1921 caused by?

A

Bolshevik policy & severe winters in 1920-21
Civil War caused shutdown of Russian railway system

126
Q

How many people died in the 1921 famine?

A

over 5 million

127
Q

What was Stalin’s policy with regards to the 1932-4 famine?

A

stealing grain was illegal - perpetrators were shot
Peasants who ate their own produce were shot
Severe restrictions were placed on those trying to move around to get more food
Discussion of the grain shortage was banned

128
Q

What was food policy during WW2?

A

Collectivisation was relaxed

129
Q

What caused the 1947 famine?

A

poor harvests

130
Q

What was a main criticism of soviet agricultural policy?

A

The adherence to ‘socialised agriculture’ led to inefficiencies and inability to meet demand

131
Q

What was the main difference in conditions for Rural work between Tsars & Communists?

A

Tsars allowed the peasants to self-regulate how much they produced and at what rate. The communists dictated how mcuh was to be produced centrally, and dissidents were severely punished.

132
Q

When was the factory inspectorate set up?

A

1882

133
Q

Why was the factory inspectorate ineffective at combatting poor work conditions?

A

They didn’t have enough inspectors & had limited powers of enforcement

134
Q

What were conditions like for urban workers generally across the period?

A

very poor

135
Q

What were working conditions like under Lenin?

A

Worse than the Tsars - Hours were long, pay was low, and enforcement of the new work discipline was was doen harshly.

136
Q

What were working conditions like under Stalin?

A

Workers were often threatened with being ‘purged’, as they were seen to be standing in the way of the five-year plans.

137
Q

When were working hours at their highest?

A

1932 - 5-Year plan needed to be enacts (10-12 hour day)

138
Q

Were working hours generally shorter under the Tsars or the Communists?

A

Communists

139
Q

What were wages like across the period?

A

Low by Western standards

140
Q

What were people’s personal freedoms like across the period?

A

Generally allowed to exercise free will as long as it didn’t conflict with state interests

141
Q

What was political freedom like generally across the period?

A

Generally poor, although whenever the people were given more freedom it was followed with more repressive measures.

142
Q

What was the Tsarist approach to religious freedom?

A

People were to follow the Russian Orthodox Church.

143
Q

What did Lenin do to the church’s power?

A

The church was separated from the school system

144
Q

What happened to churches under the communists?

A

Lenin closed a lot during the Civil War
Stalin purged a lot of priests

145
Q

How many churches were left by 1938?

A

16 working orthodox churches, compared with 224 in 1930

146
Q

What did Khrushchev introduce in the party congress of 1961?

A

A new moral code - Soviet bible

147
Q

What were restrictions placed on non-orthodox religion?

A

Mostly encouraged conversion to orthodox faith under the Tsars
Communists forced them underground

148
Q

What happened to minority religious groups during WW2?

A

They were targeted, as they were associated with collaborating with the enemy

149
Q

When was the Rouble tied to the gold standard?

A

1897

150
Q

How much did railway increase due to the Great Spurt?

A

Railway rose from 17,264 miles in 1891 to 31,125 miles in 1901

151
Q

How much did coal production increase as a result of the Great Spurt?

A

Doubled

152
Q

How much did Iron and Steel production increase as a result of the Great Spurt?

A

Increased Sevenfold

History: Russia (4 decks)

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