Chapter 5A - Motor Development Flashcards
The DYNAMIC SYSTEMS VIEW
According to the DYNAMIC SYSTEMS VIEW, infants assemble motor skills for PERCEIVING and ACTING. To develop motor skills, infants must perceive something in the environment that motivates them to act and then use their perceptions to fine-tune their movements - motor skills represent solutions to the infant’s goals.
Development of new motor behaviour is the result of many factors, such as the development of the nervous system, the body’s physical properties and its possibilities for movement, the goal the child is motivated to reach, and the environmental support for the skill.
The first step occurs when the infant is motivated by a new challenge - then, infants explore and select possible solutions to the demands of a new task.
According to this theory motor development is not a passive process in which genes dictate the unfolding of a sequence of skills over time - even universal milestones, such as crawling, reaching, and walking, are learned through this process of adaptation.
REFLEXES
REFLEXES are built-in reactions to stimuli which govern the newborn’s movements - they are automatic and beyond the infant’s control. Some reflexes — coughing, sneezing, blinking, shivering, and yawning — persist throughout life, whereas others disappear several months following birth, as the infant’s brain matures.
Some infant reflexes are:
1) The ROOTING REFLEX;
2) The SUCKING REFLEX;
3) The MORO REFLEX;
4) The GRASPING REFLEX;
5) The STEPPING REFLEX.
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS
GROSS MOTOR SKILLS are skills that involve large-muscle activities, such as moving one’s arms and walking.
The fundamental gross motor skill is POSTURAL CONTROL: posture is a dynamic process that is linked with sensory information in the skin, joints, muscles, in vestibular organs in the inner ear, in vision, and in hearing. Postural control is achieved in subsequent stages:
- newborn infants cannot voluntarily control their posture;
- within a few weeks they can hold their heads erect and they can lift their heads while prone;
- by 2 months of age, babies can sit while supported;
- by 6 months of age, babies can sit independently.
- by 9 months of age, infants learn to pull themselves up;
- within the 1st year, infants learn to stand alone.
Postural control is a necessary requisite for learning to WALK UPRIGHT. Even young infants can make the alternating leg movements that are needed for walking - which is shown in the STEPPING REFLEX. In learning to locomote, infants learn what kinds of places and surfaces are safe for locomotion.
The motor accomplishments of the first year bring increasing independence, allowing infants to explore their environment more extensively and to initiate interaction with others more readily:
- by 3 years of age, children no longer have to make an effort to stay upright and to move around - they enjoy simple movements, such as hopping, jumping, and running back and forth;
- at 5 years of age, they have become more adventurous - they run hard and enjoy races with each other and their parents;
Elementary school children gain greater control over their bodies, still physical action is essential for them to refine their developing skills - at this age, children usually encounter SPORT activities, which can encourage them to be active and to develop their motor skills. Participation can provide exercise, opportunities to learn how to compete, self-esteem, persistence, and a setting for developing peer relations and friendships.
FINE MOTOR SKILLS
FINE MOTOR SKILLS involve finely tuned movements such as finger dexterity - examples are grasping a toy, using a spoon or buttoning a shirt.
The fundamental fine motor skill toddlers need to master is the ability to REACH and GRASP objects, which is achieved within the first two years of life:
- at birth, children have virtually no control over fine motor skills;
- initially, infants reach by moving their shoulders and elbows crudely;
- then, they move their wrists, rotate their hands;
- later, two types of grasps develop:
1) the PALMER GRASP, in which infants grip with the whole hand;
2) the PINCET GRIP, in which infants grasp small objects with their thumb and forefinger - it develops toward the end of the first year.
The grasping system is very flexible - children vary their grip on an object depending on its size, shape, and texture - thanks to a strong PERCEPTUAL-MOTOR coupling. Which perceptual system the infant is most likely to use to coordinate grasping varies with age - four-month-old infants rely on touch, whereas older infants primarily rely on visual cues. This is evident in the fact that older infants can use vision to preshape their hands as they reach for an object.
As children get older, their fine motor skills improve - increased myelination of the central nervous system is reflected in the improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood. At 10 years of age, children can write rather than print words and at 12, children begin to show manipulative skills similar to the abilities of adults.
The ROOTING REFLEX
The ROOTING REFLEX: infants turn their head in an apparent effort to find something to suck if their cheeks are stroked.
The SUCKING REFLEX
The SUCKING REFLEX: newborns automatically suck any object placed in their mouth - it enables newborns to get nourishment before they have associated a nipple with food.
The MORO REFLEX
The MORO REFLEX: in response to a sudden, intense noise or movement, the baby arches his back, flings his arms outwards, extends his legs, and opens his hands, after which he slowly returns to a flexed position, often resembling an embrace - it is believed to be a way of grabbing for support while falling.
The GRASPING REFLEX
The GRASPING REFLEX: when something touches the infant’s palms, she responds by grasping tightly. By the end of the 3rd month, the grasping reflex diminishes, and the infant shows a more voluntary grasp.
The STEPPING REFLEX
The STEPPING REFLEX: if the infant is held above the ground and their feet lowered to touch a surface, they will move their feet.
