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Brain and Behaviour > Chapters 1-4 > Flashcards

Chapters 1-4 Flashcards

1
Q

What is behavioural neuroscience?

A

Behavioural neuroscience studies the relationships between behaviour and the body, specifically the brain

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2
Q

What is behaviour?

A

Behaviour is both the overt (external) and covert (internal) events

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3
Q

What is the mind-brain problem?

A

Concerns what is the mind and what is its relationship to the brain?

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4
Q

What is Dualism?

A

The idea that the mind and brain are separate

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5
Q

What is Monism?

A

The idea that the mind and body consist of the same substance

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6
Q

What is Materialistic monism?

A

The view that the body and mind and everything else are physical

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7
Q

What is a model?

A

A proposed mechanism for how something works

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8
Q

What is empiricism?

A

Gathering information through observation.

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9
Q

What did Heimholtz demonstrate?

A

He demonstrated that nerves do not behave like conducting wires

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10
Q

What did Luigi Galvani do in the 1700s?

A

He used electricity to stimulate nerves

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11
Q

What did Fritsch and Hitzig do in 1870?

A

They produced movement by electrically stimulating the brain

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11
Q

What is localization?

A

Specific areas of the brain carry out specific functions

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11
Q

What is Phrenology?

A

That there are 35 different “faculties” of emotion, intellect foound in precise areas of the brain

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11
Q

What is Equipotentiality?

A

The brain can function as an undifferentiated whole

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11
Q

Nature versus nurture?

A

An ongoing debate about how important heredity is relative to environmental influences in shaping behavior

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12
Q

What is a gene?

A

A biological unit that directs cellular processes and transmits inherited characteristics

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13
Q

What is Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) ?

A

A double-stranded double helix chain of chemical molecules

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14
Q

What is a Zygote?

A

A fertilized egg which undergoes rapid cell division and development on its way to becoming a functioning organism. Each parent contributes 23 chromosomes. Contains 46 chromosomes in total

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15
Q

What is an Embryo?

A

A new organism as it develops over first 8 weeks

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16
Q

What is a Fetus?

A

organism at developmental stage between 8 weeks and birth

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17
Q

Alleles?

A

different versions of a gene. Dominant allele: produces effect regardless of which allele it is paired with. Recessive allele: has influence only when paired with the same allele.

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18
Q

Heterozygous

A

Two alleles are different

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19
Q

Homozygous

A

two identical alleles

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20
Q

Phenotype

A

an observable characteristic

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21
Q

Genotype

A

Combinations of alleles

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22
Q

X-linked

A

a characteristic produced by an unpaired gene on the X-chromosome

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23
Q

Polygenic

A

Characteristics determined by several genes

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24
Q

Genome

A

all the genes in our chromosomes

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25
Q

Human Genome Project

A

project with goal to map the location of all the genes on the human chromosomes

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26
Q

Gene expression

A

translation of encoded information into production of proteins

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27
Q

Natural selection

A

those whose genes endow them with more adaptive traits are more likely to survive and reproduce

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28
Q

Heritability

A

percentage of the variation in a characteristic attributed to genetic factors

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29
Q

Vulnerability

A

genes contribute to predisposition for a disorder

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30
Q

Neurons

A

cells that convey sensory information into the brain, carry out
operations, and transmit commands to the body
Structure:
 Cell body
 Nucleus
 Dendrites
 Axon
 Axon terminals

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31
Q

Motor neuron

A

carries commands to the muscles and organs

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32
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Carry information from the body and outside world into
brain and spinal cord

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33
Q

Interneurons

A

neurons which connect one neuron to another in the same part
of brain or spinal cord

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34
Q

Polarization

A

A state in which there is a difference in electrical charge
between the inside and outside of the neuron

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35
Q

Voltage

A

Measure of the difference in electrical charge between two points

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36
Q

Resting potential

A

Difference in charge between inside & outside of
membrane of a neuron at rest

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37
Q

Ions

A

atoms that have lost or gained electrons
 Positive: Na+, K+
 Negative: Cl-, A-

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38
Q

Force of diffusion

A

Tendency of ions to move through membrane to less
concentrated side

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39
Q

Electrostatic pressure

A

force where ions are repelled from similarly charged,
attracted to oppositely charged

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40
Q

Sodium potassium pump

A

large protein molecules that move sodium ions
through cell membrane to outside, potassium ions back inside

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41
Q

Ion channels

A

gated pores in the membrane formed by proteins; limit the
flow of ions into and out of the cell

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42
Q

chemically gated

A

neurotransmitters or hormones

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43
Q

electrically gated

A

change in electrical potential of the membrane

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44
Q

Local potential

A

partial depolarization
 Polarity in an area shifts toward zero when disturbed

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45
Q

graded potential

A

Varies in magnitude with the strength of the stimulus that produced it

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46
Q

Action potential

A

abrupt depolarization of membrane that allows neuron to
communicate

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47
Q

nondecremental

A

Action potential is nondecremental
Travels down the axon without any decrease in size
Propagated at each successive point along the way

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48
Q

Absolute refractory period:

A

sodium ion channels are unresponsive to further
stimulation
A new action potential cannot occur

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49
Q

Relative refractory period

A

sodium ion channels could support another action
potential, but potassium channels are still open
A new action potential can occur if the stimulation is sufficiently strong enough to
overcome the charge

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50
Q

Rate law

A

axon encodes stimulus intensity not in the size of its action
potential but in its firing rate

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51
Q

Glial cells

A

Nonneural cells that provide a number of supporting functions to neurons

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52
Q

Myelin

A

fatty tissue that wraps around axon to insulate it
Keeps cell separate from extracellular fluid and other neurons

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53
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Gaps in the myelin sheath

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54
Q

Saltatory conduction

A

A form of transmission in which action potentials
appear to jump from node to node

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55
Q

What are the benefits of the myelin sheath?

A

Reduces capacitance
Electrical effect of the membrane, slows movement of ions down the axon
Signal regeneration at nodes of Ranvier
Use less energy

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56
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Glial cells which produce myelin in the brain and spinal
cord
Almost 75% of glial cells in the brain are oligodendrocytes

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57
Q

Schwann cells

A

Glial cells which produce myelin in the rest of the nervous
system

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58
Q

Radial glia

A

during fetal development they form “scaffolds” that guide new
neurons to their destinations

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59
Q

Microglia

A

provide energy to neurons and respond to injury and disease by
removing cellular debris

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60
Q

Astrocytes

A

trigger the formation of seven times as many connections in
neurons

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61
Q

Synapse

A

the connection between two neurons

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62
Q

Synaptic cleft

A

the small gap which separates neurons so they are not in
direct physical contact at the synapse

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63
Q

Presynaptic

A

transmitting neuron

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64
Q

Postsynaptic

A

receiving neuron

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65
Q

Vesicles

A

membrane-enclose bubbles at axon terminals which store
neurotransmitters

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66
Q

How Neurons Communicate

A

Chemical Transmission at the Synapse
First shown by Otto Loewi in the early 1900s
Neurons release at least two different chemicals that have opposite effects

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67
Q

Ionotropic receptors

A

receptors which form the ion channel and open quickly
to produce the immediate reactions

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68
Q

Metabotropic receptors

A

receptors which open channels indirectly through a
second messenger

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69
Q

Partial depolarization

A

depolarization which is excitatory and facilitates the
occurrence of an action potential

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70
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

increased polarization which is inhibitory and makes an
action potential less likely to occur

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71
Q

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

A

when receptors open sodium
channels to produce a partial depolarization of the dendrites and cell body

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72
Q

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

A

when receptors open potassium
channels, chloride channels, or both to produce a hyperpolarization of the
dendrites and cell body

73
Q

Spatial summation

A

combines potentials occurring simultaneously at different
locations on the dendrites and cell body

74
Q

Temporal summation

A

combines potentials arriving a short time apart, from
either the same or separate inputs

75
Q

Reuptake

A

transmitters taken back into the terminals by transporter proteins,
where they are repackaged into vesicles for reuse

76
Q

Presynaptic excitation

A

increases the presynaptic neuron’s release of
neurotransmitter onto the postsynaptic neuron

77
Q

Presynaptic inhibition

A

decreases the presynaptic neuron’s release of
neurotransmitter onto the postsynaptic neuron

78
Q

Autoreceptors

A

receptors on presynaptic terminals which sense amount of
transmitter in cleft

79
Q

Neurotransmitter release

A

Corelease
 Cotransmission
 Release of different transmitters from various terminals

80
Q

Central nervous system (CNS)

A

includes the brain and spinal cord

81
Q

Neuron

A

a single neural cell

82
Q

Nerve

A

a bundle of axons running together

83
Q

Tract

A

a bundle of axons running together in the CNS

84
Q

Nucleus

A

group of cell bodies in CNS

85
Q

Ganglion

A

group of cell bodies in PNS

86
Q

The Forebrain

A

Major structures:
 two cerebral hemispheres
 the thalamus
 the hypothalamus

87
Q

The Cerebral Hemispheres

A

large, wrinkled structures dominating the brain’s
appearance

88
Q

Longitudinal fissure

A

division running length of the brain separating cerebral
hemispheres

89
Q

Gyrus

A

each ridge in surface of the brain

90
Q

Sulcus

A

groove or space between two gyri

91
Q

Fissure

A

large groove or space between two gyri

92
Q

Cortex

A

outer surface of brain; literally, “bark”
 Mostly made up of the cell bodies of neurons

93
Q

Layers of the Cortex

A

Layer I is inhibitory.
 Layers II and III are associational.
 Layer IV is sensory.
 Layers V and VI have motor functions.

94
Q

Brain Size and Intelligence

A

Brain size is more related to body size than intelligence
 Complexity determines intellectual power

95
Q

Dorsal

A

toward the back

96
Q

Ventral

A

toward the stomach

97
Q

Anterior

A

toward the front

98
Q

Posterior

A

toward the rear

99
Q

Superior

A

above another structure

100
Q

Inferior

A

below another structure

101
Q

Lateral

A

toward the side

102
Q

Medial

A

toward the middle

103
Q

Psychosurgery

A

use of surgical intervention to treat cognitive and emotional
disorders

104
Q

Lobotomy

A

involves severing connections in the brain’s prefrontal cortex

105
Q

Corpus callosotomy

A

involves cutting corpus callosum to limit spread of epileptic
activity between hemispheres

106
Q

Association areas

A

Areas which carry out further processing beyond what the
primary area does, often combining information from other senses

107
Q

Neglect

A

A disorder in which the person ignores objects, people, and activity
on the side opposite the damage

108
Q

Temporal lobes

A

Regions containing the auditory projection area, visual and
auditory association areas, an additional language area, and structures
important in learning and memory

109
Q

Inferior temporal cortex

A

plays major role in visual identification of objects

110
Q

Thalamus

A

receives information from all sensory systems except olfaction
(smell)

111
Q

Hypothalamus

A

plays major role in controlling emotion and motivated
behaviors

112
Q

Pineal gland

A

secretes melatonin, a hormone that induces sleep

113
Q

Corpus callosum

A

band of fibers that carry information between brain
hemispheres

114
Q

Ventricles

A

cavities in brain which develop from the hollow interior of the
nervous system

115
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid

A

carries material from blood vessels to the CNS and
transports waste materials in the other direction

116
Q

Midbrain

A

structures have secondary roles in vision, hearing, and movement

117
Q

Superior colliculi

A

help guide eye movements and fixation of gaze

118
Q

Inferior colliculi

A

help locate the direction of sounds

119
Q

Hindbrain

A

 Pons
 Reticular formation
 Medulla
 Cerebellum

120
Q

Spinal cord

A

finger-sized cable of neurons that carries commands from brain
to muscles and organs, and sensory information into the brain

121
Q

Dorsal root

A

A region of each spinal nerve where sensory neurons enter the spinal
cord

122
Q

Ventral root

A

The region in which axons of motor neurons pass out of the spinal
cord

123
Q

Reflex

A

simple, automatic movement in response to sensory stimulus

124
Q

Meninges

A

protective three-layered membrane

125
Q

Blood-brain barrier

A

limits passage between bloodstream and the brain,
provides constant protection from toxic substances and from
neurotransmitters circulating in the blood

126
Q

Afferent

A

toward the CNS

127
Q

Efferent

A

away from the CNS

128
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

nerves that lie outside the central nervous
system

129
Q

Cranial nerves

A

Nerves which enter and leave the underside of the brain

130
Q

Spinal nerves

A

Nerves which connect to the sides of the spinal cord at each
vertebra

131
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

voluntary muscles and sensory receptors

132
Q

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

A

– controls automatic, involuntary functions

133
Q

Sympathetic

A

Go (fight-or-flight)

134
Q

Parasympathetic

A

Stop

135
Q

Proliferation

A

the cells that will become neurons divide and multiply rapidly

136
Q

Migration

A

newly formed neurons move from the ventricular zone to their
final location
 Radial glial cells guide migrating neurons.

137
Q

Circuit formation

A

the axons of developing neurons grow toward their target
cells and form functional connections

138
Q

Circuit pruning

A

the elimination of excess neurons and synapses

139
Q

Plasticity

A

ability of synapses to be modified

140
Q

Reorganization

A

shift in connection that changes function of an area of the brain

141
Q

Stroke

A

condition caused by loss of blood flow to the brain

142
Q

Traumatic brain injury (TBI)

A

condition caused by external mechanical force,
sudden acceleration or deceleration, or penetration

143
Q

Regeneration

A

growth of severed axons

144
Q

Neurogenesis

A

birth of new neurons

145
Q

Compensation

A

uninjured tissue takes over function of lost neurons

146
Q

Stem cells

A

undifferentiated cells that can develop into specialized cells,
such as neurons, muscle, or blood cells

147
Q

Theory

A

integrates and interprets diverse observations in an attempt to
explain a phenomenon

148
Q

Experimental study

A

researcher manipulates independent variable to
produce change in the dependent variable

149
Q

Correlational study

A

researcher observes whether two variables are related

150
Q

Golgi stain

A

randomly stains about 5% of neurons in a slide

151
Q

Myelin stain

A

taken up by the fatty myelin surrounding axons

152
Q

Nissl stain

A

identifies cell bodies of neurons

153
Q

Retrograde stains

A

taken up by neuron terminals and transported up the
axons to cell bodies

154
Q

Autoradiography

A

stains and reveals which neurons are active

155
Q

Immunocytochemistry

A

uses antibodies attached to a dye to identify cell
components

156
Q

In situ hybridization

A

construction of DNA strands which complement an
mRNA strand

157
Q

Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)

A

copy of one DNA strand carried from cell
nucleus into cytoplasm

158
Q

Transmission electron microscope

A

passes beam of electrons through thin
slice of tissue

159
Q

Scanning electron microscope:

A

beam of electrons induces specimen to emit
electrons

160
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

electronic amplifier detects electrical activity of all neurons
between two electrodes
Temporal resolution: events as close as 1 ms apart
 Spatial resolution: imprecise unless electrodes are applied directly to the brain surface
 Event-related potential: averaging many recorded responses to stimulus
 Cancels out background noise
 Reveals brain’s unique response to stimulus

161
Q

Stereotaxic instrument

A

device allowing precise positioning of a probe in the
brain

162
Q

Optogenetic techniques

A

: light-sensitive channels can be inserted in specific
types of neurons
 More precise than electrical stimulation

163
Q

Chemical stimulation via cannulation

A

 Chemical stimulation via cannulation
 Microdialysis: a more complex variation of cannulation

164
Q

Natural experiments

A

historically, brain damaged patients were a rich source
of brain research
 Damage may overlap different functional areas
 Damage may fail to affect the entirety of a functional area

165
Q

Ablation

A

surgical removal of brain tissue
 Used for large areas - imprecise
 Often done by aspiration

166
Q

Lesioning

A

surgical damaging of neural tissue
 Precise and sometimes reversible

167
Q

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A

noninvasive technique using a
magnet coil to induce a voltage
 Device held over scalp and pulsed at varying rates
 Valuable in both research and therapeutically
 Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)

168
Q

Computed tomography (CT)

A

produces series of X-rays, then composites them
into a 3-D image
 “False colors” added for contrast
 Image shows differing densities of blood vessels in the brain

169
Q

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

measures radio-frequency waves emitted
by hydrogen atoms exposed to magnetic field
 Most hydrogen atoms within water molecules
 Non-hydrogen elements can now be measured
 Diffusion tensor imaging: MRI variant measuring the movement of water molecules

170
Q

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A

observation of brain regions through a
radioactive substance injected into bloodstream
 Scanner picks up emitted positrons to form a color-coded image
 Indicates relative activity of brain regions
 Difference scans
 Cannot detect changes less than 30 s in duration
 Results do not image the brain

171
Q

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI):

A

detects increases in blood
flow and oxygen usage
 Suitable for repeated measurements
 Good spatial resolution
 Alternative to PET scans
 Costly due to expense of equipment

172
Q

Family study

A

determines how a characteristic is shared among relatives
 Heredity’s effects typically confounded by environment
 Variables measured on a numerical scale require a correlation coefficient

173
Q

Correlation

A

degree of relationship between two variables

174
Q

Twin study

A

assessing how similar twins are compared to each other and
nontwin or fraternal twin siblings

175
Q

Concordance rate

A

frequency with which relatives are alike in a
characteristic

176
Q

Genetic engineering

A

manipulating an organism’s genes

177
Q

Knockout technique

A

nonfunctioning mutation introduced into gene, then
transferred to embryos
silencing a gene by interfering with its expression
 Antisense RNA: complementary strand of RNA which binds to mRNA to block gene
expression

178
Q

Gene transfer

A

gene from another organism is inserted into recipient cells

179
Q

Gene therapy

A

treatment of disorders by manipulating genes
 Vector (often a disabled virus) carries gene in body

180
Q

Plagiarism

A

theft of another’s work or ideas

181
Q

Fabrication

A

faking results
 More serious than plagiarism
 Introduces erroneous information to the field
 2% of researchers admit to falsification

182
Q

Research With Humans

A

Informed consent: individual’s voluntary agreement to participate with
understanding of potential adverse effects
 Deception: misinforming or failing to disclose to participants the details of the
study
 Many restrictive guidelines on appropriate deception
 Informed consent required if there is a risk of physical pain or severe emotional distress

183
Q

Research With Non-Human Animals

A

Animals useful for research
 Some feel risky experiments are more ethical when performed on animals
 Speciesism: term coined by animal rights activists
 Dual standard - experimenters’ preference for inflicting discomfort or dangers on animals
rather than humans
 Animal research guidelines tighten over time

184
Q

Gene therapy

A

Gene manipulation could affect reproduction
 Future generations cannot consent to this manipulation
 Extent to which gene editing should be permitted

Brain and Behaviour (1 decks)

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