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Anatomy > Chapters 1-5 Lecture > Flashcards

Chapters 1-5 Lecture Flashcards

1
Q

Define Physiology

A

The study of the functions of the body

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2
Q

Defined the term chemical level as it applies to the hierarchy of structural organization of the body.

A

The level at which adams are tiny building blocks of matter such as carbon hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen. (Simplest level) (Adams combined to form molecules)

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3
Q

List the four classes of macromolecules found in the body.

A
  1. Carbohydrates
  2. Lipids
  3. Proteins
  4. Nucleic acids
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4
Q

Defined the term cellular level as it applies to the hierarchy of structural organization of the body.

A

The cells and their functional subunits called cellular organelles. (cells and their surroundings are made up of molecules)

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5
Q

What is an example of a structure at cellular level?

A

A phospholipid molecule is a structural component of the plasma membrane

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6
Q

Defined the term tissue as it applies to the hierarchy of structural organization of the body.

A

Tissues consist of similar types of cells and associated extra cellular material. (A group of cells working together to perform a common function)

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7
Q

Give an example of a structure that is included in the tissue level.

A

Epithelial tissue forms the inner lining of blood vessels.

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8
Q

List the four basic tissue types of the body and their functions.

A
  1. Epithelial tissue- covers the body surface and lines its cavities
  2. Connective tissue- supports the body and protects its organs
  3. Muscle tissue- provides movement
  4. Nervous tissue- provides fast internal communication by transmitting electrical impulses
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9
Q

Define the term organ as it applies to the hierarchy of structural organization of the body.

A

A discrete structure made up of multiple tissue types

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10
Q

Give an example of a structure that is included in the organ level

A

Blood vessels, the liver, brain, and femur

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11
Q

Defined the term organ system as it applies to the hierarchy of structural organization of the body

A

A unified group of organs and tissues that perform a specific function

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12
Q

Give an example of a structure that is included in the organ system

A

Cardiovascular system

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13
Q

List the 11 organ Systems of the body and their functions

A
  1. Integumentary system- forms external body covering and protects deeper tissues from injury
  2. Skeletal system- protects and supports body organs and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement
  3. Muscular system- Moves bones and maintains posture
  4. Nervous system- Controls cell functions with electrical signals
  5. Endocrine system- Controls cell function with hormones
  6. Cardiovascular system- transports nutrients, chemical messengers, gases and waste in the blood.
  7. Lymphatic system- returns fluid to cardiovascular system; detects, filters and eliminates disease causing organisms
  8. Respiratory system- adds oxygen to the blood and removes carbon dioxide
  9. Digestive system- breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells
  10. Renal (urinary) System- removes waste, maintains body fluid volume, pH and electrolyte levels
  11. Reproductive system- production of offspring
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14
Q

List three specific organs of the integumentary system

A
  1. Skin
  2. Nails
  3. Hair follicle
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15
Q

List three specific organs of the skeletal system

A
  1. Ribs
  2. Femur
  3. Tibia
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16
Q

List three specific organs of the muscular system

A
  1. Biceps brachii
  2. Deltoid
  3. Pectoral major
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17
Q

List three specific organs of the nervous system

A
  1. Brain
  2. Spinal cord
  3. Nerves
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18
Q

List three specific organs of the cardiovascular system

A
  1. Heart
  2. Aorta
    3.
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19
Q

List three specific organs of the lymphatic system

A
  1. Lymph nodes
  2. Thymus
  3. Spleen
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20
Q

List three specific organs of the respiratory system

A
  1. Trachea
  2. Lung
  3. Larynx
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21
Q

List three specific organs of the digestive system

A
  1. Liver
  2. Small intestine
  3. Pancreas
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22
Q

List three specific organs of the urinary or renal system

A
  1. Kidney
  2. Bladder
    3.
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23
Q

List three specific organs of the reproductive system

A
  1. Ovaries
  2. Uterus
  3. Testicles
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24
Q

List two dorsal body cavities and the organs each contains

A
  1. Cranial cavity- brain

2. Vertebral cavity- spinal cord

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25
Q

List the two main divisions of the ventral body cavities. What structure divides these two cavities?

A

The thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity

They are divided by the diaphragm

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26
Q

List the subdivisions of each of the two main divisions of the ventral body cavity. For each subdivision list the organs each contains.

A

Thoracic:
Pleural cavity contains the lungs
Superior mediastinum contains esophagus and trachea
Pericardial cavity contains the heart
Abdominopelvic:
Abdominal cavity contains the liver, stomach, kidneys
Pelvic cavity contains the bladder, some reproductive organs, and rectum

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27
Q

Define serous cavity

A

A slit like space lined by serosa

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28
Q

List the three serous cavities of the body

A
  1. Pleura (associated with the lungs)
  2. Pericardium (associated with the heart)
  3. Peritoneum (associated with the abdominal viscera)
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29
Q

Describe the importance of the membranes and the fluid found in a serous cavity.

A

They allow the visceral organs to slide with little friction across the cavity walls as they carry out their functions.

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30
Q

Define microscopic anatomy

A

The study of small structures (need a microscope)

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31
Q

In an H & E stain, what does the “H” stand for? What will it stain and what color?

A

Hematoxylin will stain nucleus and membrane proteins purple or blue

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32
Q

In an H & E stain, what does the “E” stand for? What will it stain and what color?

A

Eosin stains cytoplasmic material and other proteins pinkish or orange-ish

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33
Q

Define gross anatomy

A

Study of large structures (visible to the naked eye)

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34
Q

Describe in detail the structure of the plasma membrane.

A

The plasma membrane is made of a double layer of lipids (phospholipids, cholesterol, etc) within which proteins are embedded; externally facing proteins and some lipids have attached sugar groups.

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35
Q

What are the three main functions of the plasma membrane? explain how each of these functions is important to the cell.

A
  1. The plasma membrane provide a protective barrier against substances and forces outside the cell.
  2. The plasma membrane protein acts as receptors - they have the ability to bind to specific molecules arriving from outside the cell; acts as part of the body’s cellular communication system.
  3. The plasma membrane controls which substances can enter and leave the cell. It has a selectively permeable barrier that allows some substances to pass between the intracellular and extracellular fluid while preventing others.
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36
Q

List the main substances that pass easily through a plasma membrane.

A

Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and fat soluble molecules

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37
Q

Define cytoplasm.

A

“Cell forming material” - part of the cell that lies internal to the plasma membrane and external to the nucleus. It carries out most cellular activities. (consists of cytosol, organelles and inclusions)

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38
Q

Define cytosol.

A

Jellylike fluid containing substance within which the other cytoplasmic elements are suspended. (consists of water, ions, and many enzymes)

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39
Q

Describe the structure and function of ribosomes and where they are located in a cell. Explain how ribosomes are important for cellular function.

A

Structure: Ribosomes are dense particles consisting of two subunits each composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins; free or attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Function: site of protein synthesis (produce proteins for cellular or extra cellular function)
Location: many float freely with in the cytosol. Some are attached to the membrane of the rough reticulum.
Importance: “Assembly line of the manufacturing plant.”

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40
Q

Describe the structure and the several function of rough endoplasmic reticulum. How is it important for cellular function?

A

Structure: membrane system of sacs and tubules externally studded with ribosomes
Function: 1) involved in making proteins that are secreted from cells, 2) makes digestive enzymes that will be contained in lysosomes, 3) makes both the integral proteins and the phospholipid molecules of the cells membranes
Importance: all cell membranes start out as rough endoplasmic reticulum membranes

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41
Q

Describe the structure and function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Which body cells have significant amounts of it?

A

Structure: membranous system of sacs and tubules, free of ribosomes.
Function: produces steroids, calcium storage
Body cells with significant amount: cells that make lipid steroid hormones from cholesterol and liver cells that detoxify lipid soluble drugs.

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42
Q

Describe the structure and function of lysosomes. How are lysosomes important for cellular function? Describe a concrete example of what a lysosome would do in a cell.

A

Structure: digestive enzymes and acid
Function: sites of intracellular digestion
Importance: “demolition crew” breaks apart and Digests unwanted substances
Example: lysosomes fuse with phagosomes, emptying there enzymes into these vesicles and breaking down their contents.

43
Q

What is the structure and function of the Golgi apparatus? How is it important for cellular function?

A

Structure: stack of smooth membrane sacs close to the nucleus
Function: sorts, processes, and packages the proteins and membranes made by the rough ER.
Importance: it produces vesicles for exporting products; produces lysosomes

44
Q

Why is the G in Golgi apparatus always capitalized?

A

Because it is named after Camillo Golgi, who discovered it

45
Q

What is the relationship between the Golgi apparatus and rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

The Golgi apparatus receives product produced by the rough ER, packages it, and ships it to it’s appropriate destination

46
Q

Describe the structure and function of mitochondria. How are they important for cellular function?

A

Structure: rodlike, double-membrane structures; inner membrane folded into projections called cristae.
Function: produces ATP for energy (produces 90% of ATP needed by a cell)
Importance:”powerhouse of the cell” - provides energy

47
Q

Why are mitochondria unusual organelles?

A

Because they require oxygen in order to function

48
Q

What is the cytoskeleton of the cell and what is its function?

A

The cytoskeleton is an elaborate network of rods running throughout the cytosol that provide structural support for cell actin (thin filaments).
Function: acts as cells bones and muscles and ligaments by supporting cellular structures and generating various cell movement

49
Q

What are the two most important cytoplasmic inclusions in body cells? Which types of body cells have these inclusions? Why are these inclusions important to the cell that possess them and why are they important to the body?

A
  1. Lipid droplets - spherical drops of stored fat found in liver cells and adipose cells
  2. Glycosomes - sugar containing bodies that store sugar in the form of Glycogen. Found in the skeletal muscular cells and liver cells.
    Cytoplasmic inclusions store and provide energy to the body.
50
Q

Which two types of cells possess a lipid droplets?

A
  1. Small lipid droplets are found in liver cells

2. Large lipid droplets are in adipose cells

51
Q

Describe the structure of a nucleus.

A

Surrounded by the nuclear envelope; contains fluid nucleoplasm, nucleoli, and chromatin.

52
Q

Which body cells lack a nucleus? Which body cells possess many nuclei?

A

All cells have a nucleus with the exception of mature red blood cells. Skeletal muscle cells have many nuclei.

53
Q

What is the function of the nucleolus?

A

Produces ribosomes

54
Q

Describe the structure of a DNA molecule.

A

A double helix constructed of chains of nucleotide molecules.

55
Q

What are the four nucleotides that make up DNA?

A

Thymine, adenine, cytosine, guanine

56
Q

How many chromosomes do human cells have?

A

46

57
Q

In the process of transcription DNA is used to produce what type of molecule?

A

RNA molecule

58
Q

What is the main purpose of RNA molecules?

A

They are messengers

59
Q

What is the process of division called that produces nearly all body cells?

A

Mitosis

60
Q

Define the term “tissue”

A

A group of similar cells that perform similar functions

61
Q

What are the two forms of epithelial tissue and where do you find them in the body?

A
  1. Covering and lining epithelium - covers the outer and inner surfaces of most body organs.
  2. Glandular epithelium - forms most of the body glands
62
Q

List the six functions of epithelial tissue.

A
  1. Protection of the underlying tissues
  2. Secretion (release of small molecules from cells)
  3. Absorption (bringing small molecules into cells)
  4. Diffusion (movement of molecules down their concentration gradient)
  5. Filtration (passage of small molecules through a sieve-like membrane)
  6. Sensory reception
63
Q

What are the six structural characteristics that distinguish them from other tissue?

A
  1. Cellularity - lots of cells packed tightly together
  2. Specialized cells contact - barrier and gap junctions
  3. Polarity - each has a apical surface and a basement membrane
  4. Supported by connective tissue
  5. Avascular - they do not have blood vessels
  6. Regenerative
64
Q

How are epithelia classified?

A

First by layers - simple vs. stratified

Then by shape of apical cells - squamous, cuboidal, columnar

65
Q

Defined the term gland

A

Organs which secrete a specialized product

66
Q

What are Endocrine glands? What are exocrine glands? How are they different from each other?

A

Endocrine glands secrete into the internal environment signaling molecules/hormones
Exocrine glands secrete into the external environment of the body cavity or lumen. (examples: tears, mucus, digestive enzymes, earwax)

67
Q

What are the two types of exocrine glands?

A
  1. Unicellular (goblet cell)

2. Multicellular

68
Q

Explain how the secretory product of a gland is produced and secreted.

A

The protein product is made in the rough endoplasmic reticulum, then packaged into secretory granules by the Golgi apparatus and ultimately released from the cell by exocytosis.

69
Q

What is the only important unicellular exocrine gland and where is it found?

A

Goblet cell which is found in columnar epithelium

70
Q

What are the two basic parts to a multicellular exocrine gland? List three different multicellular exocrine glands and the product they secrete.

A
  1. Epithelium-walled duct
  2. Secretory unit consisting of the secretory epithelium
    * **
  3. Intestinal glands secrete digestive enzymes
  4. Sebaceous glands secrete sebum
  5. Salivary glands secrete saliva and amylase
71
Q

Explain the function of the tight junction and illustrated with a specific example. (what does it look like?)

A

It prevents molecules from passing between the cells of epithelial tissues. For example, the tight junctions in the epithelium lining the digestive tract keep digestive enzymes, ions, and micro organisms in the intestine from seeping into the bloodstream.
(looks like a belt that extends around the periphery of each cell)

72
Q

Explain the function of the desmosome. (What does it look like?)

A

The main junction for binding cells together

Looks like a zipper between cells

73
Q

Explain the function of a gap junction. (what does it look like?)

A

Communicating junction that allows ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the next for intercellular communication.
(looks like a little channel between each cell)

74
Q

What is the basement membrane, what is it made from, and which cells produce it?

A

The border between epithelium and connective tissue which is made up of the basil lamina and a layer of reticular fibers that belong to the underlying connective tissue. It is produced by epithelial cells.

75
Q

Why is kidney failure and blindness symptoms of advanced diabetes mellitus?

A

The increased amounts of glucose present in high concentrations in diabetics bind to the proteins of the basement membranes of the epithelial lining of capillaries causing them to thicken overtime and become nonfunctional which is especially evident in the capillaries in the kidneys and retina of the eye.

76
Q

What is microvilli and what types of epithelia may have it? What is its function?

A

Microvilli are fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane of apical epithelial cells. They occur on almost every moist epithelium in the body but our longest and most abundant on epithelia that absorb nutrients such as in the small intestines. They are also abundant on epithelia that secretes mucus.
Function: it maximizes the surface area across with small molecules enter or leave cells

77
Q

What are cilia? Which types of epithelia may have cilia? What is the function of cilia?

A

Cilia are whip like, highly motile extensions of the apical surface membranes of certain epithelial cells. Very common on pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
Function: pushes mucus and other substances over the epithelial surface

78
Q

What are the four main classes of connective tissue’s?

A
  1. Connective tissue proper which includes the loose and dense connective tissue’s
  2. Cartilage
  3. Bone tissue
  4. Blood
79
Q

What are the three basic characteristics of connective tissue’s?

A
  1. Relatively few cells, lots of extracellular matrix
  2. Extracellular matrix composed of ground substance and fibers (collagen fibers, reticular fibers, and elastic fibers)
  3. Embryonic origin – they all originate from the embryonic tissue called mesenchyme
80
Q

List each class of connective tissue followed by its most dominant cell type:

A
  1. Connective tissue proper: fibroblasts
  2. Cartilage: chondroblasts
  3. Bone tissue: osteoblasts
  4. Blood: erythrocytes or red blood cells
81
Q

What is the difference between a “blast” and a “cyte” in connective tissue’s?

A

Blasts are tissue forming cells that actively secrete new matrix. Cytes no longer secrete new matrix but function to maintain and repair the tissue matrix and keep the tissue healthy.

82
Q

What are the structural characteristics of collagen? Illustrate with an example.

A

Strong; resist tension/pulling (like a rope)

83
Q

What are the structural characteristics of elastin? Give an illustration.

A

Stretches then returns to original shape (like a rubber band)

84
Q

Where are reticular fibers found? What does the root reticulum mean? Why were they given this name?

A

They cover and support the structures bordering the connective tissue. For example capillaries are coated with fuzzy nets of reticular fibers and these fibers form part of the basement membrane of the epithelia.
The root reticulum means network.
They are called this because of the short fibers cluster into a mesh like network.

85
Q

What are the four basic functions of areoler connective tissue?

A
  1. Supporting and binding other tissues
  2. Holding Body fluids
  3. Defending the body against infection
  4. Storing nutrients as fat
86
Q

List the cell types found in areolar connective tissue and describe their functions.

A
  1. Fibroblasts make the collagen, reticular, and elastin fiber subunits which are secreted into the extracellular matrix to assemble
  2. Fibrocyte maintain and repair the tissue matrix and keep it healthy
  3. Defense cells (macrophage, mast cell, lymphocyte, neutrophil ) protect from invading microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites
  4. Fat cells or adipocytes store energy reserves as fat
87
Q

Explain how Areolar CT defends the body from invading microorganisms and viruses.

A

Areolar CT contains defense cells such as macrophage which specializes in destroying a wide variety of foreign materials, mast cells which mediate inflammation and promote healing, lymphocytes which recognizes and attack specific molecules, and neutrophils which destroy bacteria. It lies just deep to the epithelial tissue that line the body surfaces and surrounding capillaries at an ideal location to destroy a micro organisms at their entry site before they into the capillaries and use the vascular system to spread to other locations.

88
Q

Where is most of the adipose tissue found in the body?

A

In the hypodermis.

89
Q

What is different about brown adipose tissue than standard? What is different about it function?

A

Each brown fat cell contains many lipid droplets and numerous mitochondria which use the lipid fuel to heat the bloodstream rather then to produce ATP molecules.

90
Q

Why is dense connective tissue sometimes called fibrous connective tissue?

A

Because it makes up the fibrous capsules that surround certain organs in the body such as kidneys, lymph nodes, and bones.

91
Q

What is the common function of both cartilage and bone? What kind of forces do they resist and why is this important?

A

Cartilage and bone are the firm connective tissue’s that resist compression as well as tension

92
Q

What is the main cell type of cartilage? What are the spaces that house these cells?

A

The chondrocyte is housed in the Lacuna

93
Q

Define membrane and list the three types.

A

A thin pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces, enveloping a part, lining a cavity, or separating or connecting structures or organ

  1. Cutaneous membrane - skin covering the outer surface of the body (dermis and epidermis)
  2. Mucous membrane - Lines the inside of every hollow internal organ that opens to the outside of the body (in the layer of Areolar CT called the lamina propia)
  3. Serous membrane - slippery membranes that lines the closed pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal cavities.(secretes serous fluid)
94
Q

What is the difference between mucous and mucus?

A

Mucus is the fluid that is secreted from the mucous membrane

95
Q

What are the four symptoms of inflammation and how are they generated?

A
  1. Redness
  2. Swelling
  3. Itch/pain
  4. Heat
    Damaged cells release chemicals which create mast cells which release histamine which causes the above symptoms
96
Q

What are the five important functions of the skin?

A
  1. Barrier - protects deeper tissues from trauma, water loss, pathogen and UV damage
  2. Temp control - sweat glands help with heat loss and Cutaneous blood vessels control blood flow
  3. Sensation -
  4. Vitamin D synthesis -
  5. Excretion - sweat
97
Q

Name the most abundant cell type found in the epidermis. How long do these cells live? What is the product they produce? What kind of molecule is it? What is it function?

A

Keratinocytes live for about 35-45 days and produce keratin.

Keratin is a tough fibrous protein that gives the epidermis its protective properties

98
Q

What is a decubitus ulcer?

A

Bed sore (could be formed in as Little as 2 to 3 hours)

99
Q

What is cyanosis?

A

When hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated the blood and the skin of Caucasian appear blue (common causes are heart failure or severe respiratory disorders)

100
Q

About how much sweat as a person secrete each day? How much could they secrete if necessary?

A

An average of 500 mL of sweat per day and could produce 12 L if necessary

101
Q

Sweat glands that are considered regular or standard sweat glands are properly called what? What are the components of sweat?

A

Eccrine sweat glands

Sweat is 99% water with some salt and traces of Metabolic waste

102
Q

What are the specialized sweat glands found in the anal and Genital regions called? Function?

A

Apocrine sweat glands

103
Q

What classifies a 1st, 2nd, and 3rd degree burn?

A

1st° only affects the epidermis
2nd° effects epidermis and some of the dermis
3rd° affect all the dermis

Anatomy (6 decks)

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