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Anatomy > Chapters 18-21 > Flashcards

Chapters 18-21 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the basic components of blood?

A

55% plasma, 45% erythrocytes (RBC’s), 1% Buffy coat (leukocytes and platelets)

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2
Q

What is the volume of blood a person typically has?

A

About 5 Liters ( 5-6 L in adult men and 4-5 L in adult women)

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3
Q

Define hematocrit.

A

The volume of the packed RBC’s expressed as a % of whole blood volume.

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4
Q

What is the typical hematocrit for a male? for a female?

A

male: 47% + or - 5% (42% - 52%); female: 42% + or - 5% (37% - 47%)

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5
Q

What formed elements are found in the buffy coat? About what percent of the blood volume is the “buffy coat”?

A

Leukocytes and platelets make up less than 1%

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6
Q

What percent of the blood volume is made up of plasma? How much volume is this?

A

55% - 2.75 L

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7
Q

List the 3 main types of proteins fond in plasma and describe their functions.

A
  1. Albumin - helps keep water from diffusing out of the bloodstream into the extracellular matrix of tissues.
  2. Globulins - include both antibodies and the blood proteins that transport lipids, iron, and copper.
  3. Fibrinogen - one of several molecules involved in a series of chemical reactions that achieves blood clotting.
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8
Q

List some of the molecules in blood plasma.

A 
H2O, 
ions (Na+, K+, CA+2), 
nutrients (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids), 
wastes (CO2, urea, uric acid), 
hormones, 
plasma proteins
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9
Q

Why is it proper to refer to the blood cells as “formed elements” instead of “blood cells?”

A

Because they include platelets which are not true cells

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10
Q

Describe the characteristics of erythrocytes. (shape, size, organelles present or absent, contained proteins, 2 primary functions, and longevity)

A

Shape - biconcave discs with depressed centers
Size - 7.5 micrometers in diameter
No nuclei or organelles
Protein - hemoglobin
Functions - Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
longevity - 100-120 days

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11
Q

Give a description of diapedesis, list the formed elements capable of diapedesis, and explain why it is important.

A

A process in which leukocytes, in response to chemicals produced or released at infection sites, leave the capillaries by actively squeezing between the endothelial cells that form the capillary walls. Once outside the capillaries, leukocytes travel to the infection sites to fight the infection as they are crucial to the body’s defense against disease.

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12
Q

Describe the histological characteristics of neutrophils (how can they be identified in a prepared slide?).

A

multilobed nucleus, pale red and blue cytoplasmic granules

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13
Q

Describe the function of neutrophils. What types of pathogens do they target? How do they recognize their targets? Describe how this cell carries out its function (2 main things).

A

Function: consume and destroy bacteria
Attracted by bacterial products, neutrophils quickly migrate to sites of infection, where they constitute the first line of defense in an inflammatory response.
Destroys bacteria by: 1. phagocytosis 2. secreting granules directly on to bacterium

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14
Q

Describe the histological characteristics of eosinophils (how can they be identified in a prepared slide?).

A

Bilobed nucleus, red cytoplasmic granules

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15
Q

Describe the 2 functions of eosinophils and describe how it carries out each of these functions.

A
  1. Plays a role in ending allergic reactions by phagocytizing allergens after the allergens are bound to antibodies. They then secrete enzymes that degrade histamine and other chemical mediators of inflammation that are released int the allergic reaction.
  2. kill parasitic infections - attach to parasites and their granules release enzymes that digest and destroy the invader
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16
Q

Describe the histological characteristics of basophils (how can they be identified in a prepared slide?).

A

bilobed nucleus, purplish-black cytoplasmic granules

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17
Q

Describe the function of basophils and how they carry out the function.

A

mediate inflammation during allergic responses and parasitic infections by secreting histamine and other molecules

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18
Q

Describe the histological characteristics of lymphocytes (how can they be identified in a prepared slide?).

A

large spherical neucleus, thin rim of pale blue cytoplasm

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19
Q

What are the two main classes of lymphocytes?

A
  1. T cells 2. B cells
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20
Q

Describe the function of B cells (B lymphocytes). Describe there function of T cells (killer T lymphocytes).

A

T cells - attack foreign cells directly
B cells - differentiate and produce antibodies, proteins that bind to the antigen and thus mark the foreign cell for destruction by macrophages.

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21
Q

Describe the histological characteristics of monocytes (how can they be identified in a prepared slide?).

A

kidney-shaped nucleus, abundant pale blue cytoplasm

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22
Q

What type of cell do most moncytes transform into? Describe the function of this cell and how does it carry out its function?

A

Most turn into macrophages.
Function: phagocytize foreign cells, molecules, and tiny particles of debris by moving by amoeboid motion (move around and look). Also can take up residence in an organ and stay there.

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23
Q

Describe the characteristics of platelets. (shape, size, organelles present or absent, primary function)

A

shape - disc-shaped
size - 2-4 micrometers
No nuclei or organelles (not a true cell)
Function: seal small tears in blood vessels

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24
Q

Platelets release chemicals. Describe each of 3 main things these chemicals do.

A
  1. signal more platelets to arrive
  2. cause the vessel to constrict so that bleeding slows
  3. initiate inflammation at the injury site
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25
Q

What is the molecule that platelets release and what does it do?

A

Thromboplastin or PF3 - helps initiate clotting, a sequence of chemical reactions in blood plasma that ultimately generates a network of tough fibrin strands among the accumulated platelets.

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26
Q

What is the function of red bone marrow? Why is it red? Where in a bone is it found? In which bones in the adult skeleton is the red marrow found?

A

Function: actively generates blood cells.
Red hue derives from the immature erythrocytes it contains.
Bones: remains between the trabeculae of spongy bone throughout the axial skeleton and girdles and in the proximal epiphysis of each humerus and femur.

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27
Q

What is the function of yellow bone marrow? Why is it yellow? Where in bones is it found (2 places)? In which bones in the adult skeleton is the yellow marrow found?

A

Function: dormant; it makes blood cells only in emergencies that demand increased hematopoiesis.
Yellow color reflects the many fat cells it contains.
Bones: all regions of the long bones and limbs except for the proximal epiphysis of the humerus and femur.

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28
Q

Describe the structure of red marrow. Be sure to name the type of tissue it is made of, describe the organization of the cells and proteins within the tissue, the vessels, and how these structures contribute to the function.

A

Reticular connective tissue in which reticular fibers form a complex branching network. The fibroblasts that cover and secrete this fiber network are called reticular cells. Within the “caves” of the fiber network are both fat cells and the forming blood cells in all stages of maturation. Running throughout the reticular tissue are many wide capillaries called blood sinusoids which allow mature blood cells to enter the blood stream through their endothelial cell walls. The reticular tissue of the bone marrow also contains macrophages that extend pseudopods into the sinusoids to capture antigens in the blood.

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29
Q

The condition of having an elevated hematocrit is called what? Describe why it is dangerous (when severe), explain the consequences and how they come about.

A

Polycythemia - Severe case causes an increase in the viscosity of the blood, which slows or blocks the flow of blood through the smallest vessels.

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30
Q

The condition of having a lowered hematocrit is called what? Describe why it is dangerous (when severe), explain the consequences and how they come about. List some ways a person may have this condition (at least 3 and they need to be different.)

A

Anemia - Severe cases dangerous because the blood’s capacity for carrying oxygen is diminished.

  1. diet low in iron
  2. blood loss or bleeding event
  3. genetic defect of hemoglobin
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31
Q

define hematopoiesis

A

process by which blood cells are formed

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32
Q

define blood stem cell

A

the cell from which blood cells arise

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33
Q

The right side of the heart receives blood that has what qualities with respect to gases? This blood is pumped to which circuit.

A

The right side receives oxygen-poor blood from the body tissues.
Pumped to the pulmonary circuit

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34
Q

The left side of the heart receives blood that has what qualities with respect to gases? This blood is pumped to which circuit?

A

The left side receives the oxygenated blood returning from the lungs.
Pumped to the systemic circuit.

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35
Q

The most inferior part of the heart is called the what? The superior part of the heart is called the what?

A

Inferior - ventricles (apex?)

Superior - atria (base?)

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36
Q

Describe each of the 3 layers of the pericardium of the heart. Be sure to include the position of each layer, the tissues that make-up each layer, and the function of each layer (including any products produced and their functions.)

A

Fibrous pericardium - outer layer; strong layer of dense connective tissue; acts as a tough outer coat that holds the heart in place and keeps it from overfilling with blood.
Serous pericardium - produces a lubricating film of serous fluid into the pericardial cavity which reduces friction between the beating heart and the outer wall of the pericardial sac. Two layers:
Parietal layer of the serous pericardium - middle layer adhering to the inner surface of the fibrous pericardium.
Visceral layer of the serous pericardium - also called the pericardium and considered a part of the heart wall is the deepest layer.

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37
Q

Describe each of the 3 layers of the wall of the heart. Be sure to include the position of each layer, the tissues that make up each layer, and the function of each layer.

A

Epicardium - (“upon the heart”) the visceral layer of the serous pericardium; outermost layer
Myocardium - (“muscle heart”) middle layer that forms the bulk of the heart consisting of cardiac muscle tissue and is the layer that actually contracts; surrounded by CT.
Endocardium - (“inside the heart”) deep to the myocardium; sheet of simple squamous epithelium rest in ton a thin layer of CT; lines the heart chambers and covers the heart valves.

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38
Q

What is the function of the AV valves? When do they open? When do they close?

A

Function: prevent the back flow of blood into the atria during constriction of the ventricles.
They open while blood flows into the atria and down into the ventricles. When the ventricles start to contract, the pressure within them rises and forces the blood superiorly against the valve cusps, pushing the edges of the cusps together and closing the AV valves.

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39
Q

What is the function of the semilunar valves? When do they open? When do they close?

A

Function: prevent back flow from the great arteries into the ventricles.
When the ventricles contract and raise the intraventricular pressure, the semilunar valves are forced open, and their cusps are flattened against the arterial walls as the blood rushes past them. When the ventricles relax, blood that tends to flow back toward the heart fills the cusps of the semilunar valves and focus them shut.

40
Q

The first heart sound is the sound of what happening in the heart?

A

The “lub” sound is produced by the closing of the AV valves at the start of ventricular contraction.

41
Q

The second heart sound is the sound of what happening in the heart?

A

The “dub” sound is produced by the closing semilunar valves at the end of ventricular contraction.

42
Q

An abnormal heart sound is called a what? Describe how an abnormal sound may occur using proper terminology.

A

Heart murmur
Valves that leak because they fail to close properly are considered incompetent (or said to exhibit insufficiency). An incompetent valve produces a distinct blowing sound after the valve closes. By contrast, valves with narrowed openings, such as occur when cusps have fused or become stiffened by calcium deposits are termed stenotic and produce a distinctive “click” sound because they cannot open properly.

43
Q

Describe the timing of the contraction of the heart chambers

A

2 atria contract
2 ventricles contract
Pause = diastole
s1, s2 (pause) s1, s2 (pause)

44
Q

The proper term for contraction in the heart is?

A

Systole

45
Q

Which chamber of the heart has the thickest wall? What does this tell you about the function of that chamber?

A

The left ventricle has the thickest myocardium

It generates more force and a higher pressure of up to 125 mmHg

46
Q

Briefly describe the mechanism of contraction for a cardiac muscle cell.

A

Cardiac muscle cells are triggered to contract by ionic calcium entering the sarcoplasm in response to an action potential. This rise in intracellular calcium signals the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release its stored Ca2+. These ions diffuse into the sarcomeres and trigger the sliding of the filaments. Reuptake of calcium by the sarcoplasmic reticulum ends contraction.

47
Q

The division of the nervous system that controls the heart is the what? What is the primary structure this division innervates in order to adjust heart rate?

A

the autonomic nervous system

primary structure - the right atria

48
Q

Of the cardiac muscles cells that are innervated, what aspect of their function can the nervous system directly control?

A

heart rate through parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves

49
Q

The first 2 branches of the aorta are the….?

A

Brachiocephalic trunk, Left common carotid artery

50
Q

The vessel that returns blood circulating through the coronary circulation to the heart is the what?

A

coronary sinus?

51
Q

The proper term for heart attack is what? Describe what is happening in the heart during heart attack.

A

myocardial infarction - If the blockage of a coronary artery is more complete or prolonged, the oxygen-starved cardiac muscle cells die.

52
Q

Describe the cardiac skeleton and explain its function

A

The CT of the myocardium form the cardiac skeleton which reinforces the myocardium internally and anchors the cardiac muscle fibers.

53
Q

Describe the structure of cardiac muscle tissue

A

Striations, sarcomeres, myofibrils, lots of mitochondria, branching with intercalated discs, one or two centrally located nuclei

54
Q

define coronary artery disease

A

arteries supplying the heart wall are narrowed or blocked

55
Q

define heart failure

A

a progressive weakening of the heart as it fails to keep pace with the demands of pumping blood and thus cannot meet the body’s need for oxygenated blood.

56
Q

What are vasa vasorum?

A

“vessels of the vessels” - tiny arteries, capillaries, and veins in the tunica externe of larger arteries and veins.

57
Q

Define artery.

A

vessels that carry blood away from the heart

58
Q

Define vein.

A

blod vessels that conduct blood from the capillaries toward the heart.

59
Q

Describe the anatomy of the innermost tunic of arteries and veins.

A

Tunica intima - contains the endothelium, the simple squamous epithelium that lines the lumen of all vessels with supporting BM and aereolar CT; forms a smooth surface that minimizes friction of blood moving across them. (if artery - internal elastic lamina)

60
Q

Describe the anatomy of the middle tunic of arteries and veins.

A

Tunica media - consists primarily of circularly arranged sheets of smooth muscle fibers, between which lie circular sheets of elastin and collagen fibrils. Contractile layer (vasoconstriction - decreased diameter of the vessel, vasodilation - increases the vessel’s diameter.) Helps to rebuilt blood pressure. (if artery - dense elastic tissue)

61
Q

Describe the anatomy of the outermost tunic of arteries and veins.

A

Tunica externa - a layer of connective tissue that contains many collagen and elastic fibers that protects the vessel and strengthens the wall. (if artery - elastic tissue)

62
Q

Describe the anatomy of elastic arteries. List 3 elastic arteries. Describe the special functions of elastic arteries.

A

Huge arteries near the heart made up of lots of dense elastic tissue. Expands with each pressure pulse making it easier for the heart and allowing for continuous flow.

  1. pulmonary arteries
  2. aorta
  3. brachiocephalic trunk
63
Q

Describe the anatomy of muscular arteries. List 3 muscular arteries. Describe the special functions of elastic arteries.

A

middle sized arteries distal to the elastic arteries that constitute most of the named arteries seen in the anatomy lab. Tunica media that is thicker relative to the size of the lumen than that of any other type of vessel. Smooth muscle of the tunica media is sandwiched between two thick sheets of elastin;wavy internal elastic membrane forms the outer layer of the tunica intima; external elastic membrane forms the outer layer of the tunica media.
Function: actively changes the diameter of the artery to regulate the amount of blood flowing to an organ according to the specific needs of that organ; elastic membranes and thin sets of elastin within the tunica media help to dampen the pulsatile pressure produced by the heartbeat.
1. radial artery
2. brachial artery
3. cephalic artery

64
Q

Describe the anatomy of arterioles.

A

smallest arteries; tunica media - contains only one or two layers of smooth muscle cells. larger arterioles have all three tunics plus an internal elastic network in the tunica intima. Smaller arterioles which lead into the capillary beds are little more than a single layer of smooth muscle cells spiraling around an underlying endothelium.

65
Q

Describe the anatomy of capillaries. What is the diameter of a capillary? Describe their function.

A

smallest blood vessels with a diameter of 8-10 micrometers.
Composed of only a single layer of endothelial cells surrounded by a basement membrane. Most important blood vessels because they renew and refresh the surrounding tissue fluid with which all body cells are in contact; deliver oxygen and nutrients to the fluid and remove carbon dioxide and nitrogenous wastes. (some capillaries also perform site-specific functions)

66
Q

What is the most common type of capillary? Where are they found in the body?

A

Continuous capillaries are the most common type occurring in most organs of the body such as skeletal muscles, skin, and the central nervous system.

67
Q

What are the three types of capillaries?

A
  1. continuous, 2. fenestrated, 3. sinusoids
68
Q

Where are the fenestrated capillaries found in the body and what is their special function?

A

occur only where there are exceptionally high rates of exchange of small molecules between the blood and the surrounding tissue fluid. (example: capillaries in the small intestine - receive the digested nutrients from food, capillaries in the glomeruli of the kidneys - filter blood, capillaries in the endocrine glands - pick up scripted hormones)

69
Q

Where are sinusoidal capillaries found in the body and what is their special function?

A

occur wherever there is an extensive exchange of large material, such as proteins or cells, between the blood and surrounding tissue. (example: bone marrow and spleen where many blood cells move through their walls)
The large diameter and twisted course of sinusoids ensure that blood slows when flowing through these vessels, allowing time for many exchanges that occur across their walls.

70
Q

Describe the pressure of the blood found in veins. About how much of the blood volume do veins usually hold?

A

Blood pressure declines substantially while blood passes through the high-resistance arterioles and capillary beds thus the blood pressure in the veins is much lower than in the arteries. Veins hold fully 65% of the body’s blood.

71
Q

what are the smallest veins called?

A

venules (8-100 micrometers in diameter)

Smallest venues called postcapillary venules.

72
Q

Describe the mechanism by which veins prevent the back flow of blood.

A

Some veins have valves that prevent the back flow. these valves have several cusps formed from the tunica intima. The flow of blood toward the heart pushes the cusps apart, opening the valve, and any back flow pushes the cusps together, closing the valve.

73
Q

Describe the skeletal muscle pump. How does it work?

A

a mechanism aiding venous return in which contracting skeletal muscles press against the thin-walled veins, forcing valves proximal to the area of contraction to open and propelling blood toward the heart. Valves distal to the contracting muscles are closed by back flowing blood.

74
Q

What are vascular anastomoses? What is the function of an anastomosis?

A

The connection or union of two vessels that come together in order to provide alternative pathways for blood to reach a given body region.

75
Q

What is an aneurism? What is the risk of haven an aneurism?

A

a saclike widening or out pocketing of an artery (or vein) that places the vessel at risk of rupturing.
Aortic aneurisms are present in 1% of women and 8% of men over age 65 causing 10,000 deaths per year in the US.

76
Q

Define pulmonary circuit.

A

carries blood to and from the lungs for the uptake of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide.

77
Q

Define systemic circuit

A

carries oxygenated blood throughout the body and picks up carbon dioxide from body tissues; also picks up nutrients from the digestive tract and deliver them to cells throughout the body and receive nitrogenous wastes form body cels and transport them to the kidneys, and pick yup hormones or other signaling molecules and transport them to their target organ.

78
Q

Name the major vessels of the pulmonary circuit.

A
  1. pulmonary trunk
  2. right and left pulmonary arteries
  3. Lobar arteries
  4. pulmonary veins
79
Q

Name the three vessels that arise from the aortic arch

A
  1. The brachiocephalic trunk branches into the right common carotid artery to the brain and the right subclavian artery to the right upper limb and thorax.
  2. Left common carotid artery to the brain.
  3. Left subclavian artery to the left upper limb and thorax
80
Q

Describe the routes of arterial blood supply from these vessels (aortic arch) to the head and neck, the brain, the thorax, and the upper limb.

A

Head and neck - Four pairs of arteries: common carotid arteries plus three branches form each subclavian artery. (the vertebral artery, the thyrocervical trunk, and the costocervical trunk.
Brain - right and left external carotid arteries
thorax - Subclavian artery to the internal thoracic artery and the anterior intercostal arteries and the posterior intercostal arteries.
Upper limbs - Subclavian arteries to the axillary artery to the brachial artery to the radial and ulnar arteries to the palmar arches.

81
Q

Describe the pathways and the organs supplied by the midline arteries and by the paired arteries branching off the abdominal aorta.

A

the arteries to the abdominal organs arise from the abdominal aorta. Three midline branches (the celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery , and inferior mesenteric artery) bring blood to the digestive tract, the inner tube.

82
Q

Describe the pathway of arterial supply to the pelvis and the lower limb.

A

each common iliac artery forks into two branches: the internal iliac artery, which mainly supplies the pelvic organs, and the external iliac artery, which supplies the lower limb.

83
Q

Describe the main functions of the lymphatic system

A
  1. collects the tissue fluid that arises from blood filtered through the capillary walls (called lymph once inside the lymphatic vessels) from the loose CT around blood capillaries and returns it to the bloodstream.
  2. return leaked blood proteins to the bloodstream.
84
Q

Describe the main function of the immune system.

A

identifies and destroys specific pathogens

85
Q

Describe the primary source of “tissue fluid” (where does it come from?) What are the substance found in tissue fluid.

A

Tissue fluid arises form blood filtered through the capillary walls and consists of the small molecules of blood plasma, including water, various ions, nutrient molecules, and respiratory gases.

86
Q

The fluid inside lymphatic vessels is called what?

A

lymph

87
Q

define the term “lymph”

A

(lympha = clear water) excess tissue fluid from the loose connective tissue around blood capillaries collected by the lymphatic vessels.

88
Q

List the types of lymphatic vessels in order from the smallest to largest.

A

lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic collecting vessels (with lymph nodes), lymph trunks, and lymph ducts.

89
Q

Name the body structure (organ) that lymph is ultimately delivered to.

A

heart

90
Q

Describe the anatomy of a lymphatic capillary.

A

highly permeable vessels. walls consist of a single layer of endothelial cells which have few intercellular junctions and the edges of adjacent cells overlap forming easily opened mini valves. Bundles of fine collagen filaments anchor the endothelial cells to the surrounding CT.

91
Q

List the areas of the body which lack lymphatic capillaries. Explain why lymphatic capillaries are not needed in these structures.

A

They are absent from bone and teeth, from bone marrow, and from the entire central nervous system, where excess tissue fluid drains through the nervous tissue into the cerebrospinal fluid.

92
Q

The specialized lymphatic capillaries found in the small intestine are called what? Name and describe the substances they transport (include the special term used to describe the fluid). Why are these vessels needed in the gut?

A

Lacteals - transport chyle (a fatty lymph caused by the digested fats that they absorb from the intestine. Important to trap bacteria.

93
Q

Describe the pressure of the lymph in lymphatic collecting vessels. Describe the mechanisms that help propel lymph through these vessels.

A

very low pressure - to direct the flow of lymph, collecting lymphatic vessels contain more valves that do veins. At the base of each valve, the vessel bulges, forming a pocket in which lymph collects and forces the valve to shut.

94
Q

About how many lymph nodes does a person have? Large clusters of lymph nodes are found in what locations.

A

Appx 500
Large clusters located in the cervical, axillary, and inguinal regions; deep lymph nodes are found in the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis.

95
Q

The largest lymphatic vessels are called lymph what?

A

ducts

96
Q

The thoracic duct drains lymph from which body regions?

A

Abdomen, both lower limbs, L head, L upper appendage, L thorax.

97
Q

Many people do not have a right lymphatic duct. When this is the case, explain what their vessel arrangement would likely be.

A

Without the right lymphatic duct, the right jugular, subclavian, and bronchomediastinal trunks open independently into the neck veins.

Anatomy (6 decks)

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