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geography > Coasts > Flashcards

Coasts Flashcards

1
Q

Coasts definition?

A

The coast is the interface between the land and the sea

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2
Q

Model definition?

A

A simplification of a more complex reality/world

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3
Q

Landscapes are…

A

The combination of landforms

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4
Q

What is a system?

A

A system can be a process or collection of processes that transforms inputs to outputs
Where the output of one system is, is the input of another system

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5
Q

Name the two types of systems

A

Interlocking and cascading

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6
Q

What is the ‘systems theory’?

A

Views the world as a complex system of interconnected parts

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7
Q

What are the common characteristics of a system?

A

• Structure that lies within a boundary
• they are generalisations of reality
• they function by having inputs and outputs of material (energy/matter)
• involve the flow of material between components

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8
Q

Within the boundary of a system we can find three kinds of properties:

A

Elements, attributes and relationships

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9
Q

What are elements in a system?

A

Parts that make up a system
e.g. Molecules, sand grains, animals

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10
Q

What are attributes in a system?

A

Characteristics of elements that maybe perceived or measured
e.g. Quantity, size, colour

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11
Q

What are relationships in a system?

A

The associations that occur between elements and attributes ( some kind of process)

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12
Q

What is an isolated system?

A

• No input or output of energy or matter
• no interactions with anything outside boundary
• only exists in theory/ science labs

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13
Q

What is a closed system?

A

• may be input and output of energy but no matter flows across the system boundary (fixed mass)
• Earth is seen as a closed system
• cascading system

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14
Q

What are the four major subsystems?

A

Atmosphere
Lithosphere
Hydrosphere
Biosphere

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15
Q

What is an open system?

A

• both energy and matter can cross the boundary
• Inputs and outputs of energy/matter
e.g. Coasts

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16
Q

What is dynamic equilibrium in a system?

A

When its inputs and outputs of energy and matter balance
If element changes the equilibrium is upset → this is called feedback

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17
Q

What is positive feedback?

A

Where the effects of an action are amplified by subsequent secondary effects (bad)

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18
Q

What is negative feedback?

A

Where the effects of an action are nullified by its subsequent knock on effects ( good)

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19
Q

What is the backshore?

A

Furthest from water
Limit of marine activity
Changes take place only during storm activity

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20
Q

What is the foreshore?

A

Lying between high water mark and low water mark
Marine processes that are not influenced by storm activity

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21
Q

What is the inshore?

A

Area between low water mark and the point where waves cease to never any influence on the land beneath them

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22
Q

What is the offshore?

A

Area beyond the point where waves cease to impact upon the seabed and in which activity is limited to deposition of sediments

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23
Q

What is the nearshore and what does it include?

A

Area extending seaward from the high water mark to the area where waves begin in to break
swash zone, surf zone and breaker zone

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24
Q

What is the swash zone?

A

area where a turbulent layer of water washes up the beach following the breaking of a wave

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25
Q

What is the surf zone?

A

area between the point waves break forming a foamy surface

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26
Q

What is the breaker zone?

A

area where waves approaching the coastline begin to break usually where the water depth is 5 to 10m

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27
Q

What are the 4 sources of energy at the coast?

A

Wind, waves, tides and currents

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28
Q

What is the primary source of energy for all natural systems?

A

The sun

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29
Q

What is the definition of wind?

A

Movement of air from one place to another
Moves from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure

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30
Q

What are the features of wind as an input into the coastal system?

A

Prevailing wind direction, fetch, wave formation and an agent of erosion

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31
Q

What is the prevailing wind direction?

A

Dominant wind direction

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32
Q

Why is the prevailing wind important?

A

Controls the direction that waves approach the coastline and the direction of the transport of material in the coastal zone

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33
Q

What is the fetch?

A

The distance of water over which a wind blows uninterrupted by land obstacles

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34
Q

What does the length of the fetch determine?

A

The magnitude (size) and energy of the waves reaching the coast

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35
Q

What are waves created by?
(Wave formation)

A

The transfer of energy from the wind blowing over the sea surface (frictional drag of the wind)

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36
Q

What is the most common type of wind erosion?

A

Abrasion (wind uses material it carries to wear away landscape features)

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37
Q

What town in Portugal is renowned for its huge waves?

A

Nazaré - attracts surfers from all over the world

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38
Q

Why surfed a 30 meter wave in 2013?

A

Garret McNamara -world a record (probably beaten since)

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39
Q

What factors determine the size and energy of
Nazaré waves?

A

The fetch, storms, strength of wind and a 230km canyon that’s 200m deep

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40
Q

What was the town of nazarés past uses?

A

• fishing town -main industry until mid 20th century
• tourist beach in the summer

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41
Q

What is the town of nazarés current use?

A

• Capital of big wave surfing
• surfing is now a tradition

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42
Q

Why are locals in nazaré unhappy?

A

•New developments - rich buying people out
• many young families leaving community
• fish industry decline

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43
Q

What is the wave height?

A

Difference between the crest and the trough

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44
Q

What is the wavelength/amplitude of a wave?

A

Difference between two successive crests

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45
Q

What is wave period/wave frequency?

A

The time for one wave to travel the distance of one wavelength

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46
Q

Why do waves travel?

A

Gravity pulls the water in crests downward

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47
Q

What are the motions of water beneath the waves?

A

Circular or orbital

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48
Q

What is the wave height of a constructive wave?

A

Low

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49
Q

What is the wave height of a destructive wave?

A

High (steep wave face)

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50
Q

Swash strength of constructive and destructive waves?

A

Constructive - strong (pushes sediment up the beach)
Destructive - weak (crashes down to trough of wave)

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51
Q

Swash strength of constructive and destructive waves?

A

Constructive - strong (pushes sediment up the beach)
Destructive - weak (crashes down to trough of wave)

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52
Q

The backwash of constructive and destructive waves?

A

Constructive - weak (sediment not pulled back)
Destructive - strong (drags material down the beach)

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53
Q

What beach profile are constructive waves on?

A

Gentle

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54
Q

What beach profile are destructive waves on?

A

Steep/shelving sea bed

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55
Q

What is topography?

A

The study of the land surface

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56
Q

What happens when waves approach a headline that is not regular Shape?

A

They are retracted and become increasingly parallel to the coastline

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57
Q

What happens when waves are refracted at a headland?

A

The wave height and wave steepness increases and shortens the wavelength, moves faster causing greater erosion
Low energy waves spill into bay resulting in deposition → negative feedback can be seen to operate here

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58
Q

Define current

A

Permanent or seasonal movement of surface water in the seas and oceans

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59
Q

What is a longshore current?

A

• Occurs when waves approach at an angle to the shoreline
• flow of water parallel to the shoreline (current)
• only moves water along the surf zone but transports sediment parallel to the shoreline

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60
Q

What is a rip current?

A

• Strong currents moving away from shoreline
• develop when water is piled up by incoming waves
• hazardous to swimmers and boats

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61
Q

What is a upwelling current?

A

• Movement of cold water from deep in the ocean towards the surface
• more dense cold water replaces warmer surface water
• Form part of the pattern of global ocean circulation currents

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62
Q

How do you escape a rip current?

A

Escape from the side at a 45° angle to the coast

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63
Q

Describe the tell-tale signs of a rip current?

A

Deeper/darker water, ripples surrounded by calmer water, few breaking waves, foamy/sandy water going out

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64
Q

What are the three factors that drive oceanic currents?

A

The rise and fall of tides
Wind
Thermoholine circulation

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65
Q

Describe the rise and fall of tides?

A

• tidal currents strongest near the shore
• change Ina very regular pattern and can be predicted

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66
Q

What currents does wind create on a more global scale?

A

currents that circulate for thousands of miles - gyres

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67
Q

How do currents affect the earths climate?

A

Drive warm water from the equator and cold water from the poles around the earth

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68
Q

What is thermonaline circulation driven by?

A

Density differences in water due to temp and salinity variations

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69
Q

What percentage is deer ocean currents?

A

90%

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70
Q

Name the three types of currents

A

Longshore, rip and upwelling

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71
Q

Definition of tides?

A

Periodic rise and fall of the level of the sea due to the gravitational put of the sun and moon

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72
Q

What is a spring tide and what does it do?

A

•Twice in a lunar month, when the moon, sun and earth are in a straight line the tide raising force is strongest
• produces spring tide
• gives higher tides and lower lows

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73
Q

What is a near tide and what does it do?

A

• twice a month the moon and sun are positioned at 90° to each other in relation to the earth
•makes neap tides
• lower high tides and higher low tides

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74
Q

How does the moon control tides?

A

Moons gravitational pull pulls water towards it
Compensatory bulge on the opposite side of the earth
As the moon orbits the earth the high tide follows it

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75
Q

Tidal range can be a significant factor in the development of what?

A

Of a coastline

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76
Q

What is a tidal/storm surge?

A

A temporary rise in the sea levels as the stronger winds rush the sea up and towards the coastline and produce higher water levels than those at high tide

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77
Q

What is one area affected by tidal/storm surges?

A

North Sea and east coast of Britain

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78
Q

What is the UK storm surge case study?

A

Storm surge 27th October 2004 chichesterharbour / west wittering
Depression causing rain, south westerly prevailing wind pushed water up the coast

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79
Q

Where was the impact of the west wittering storm surge?

A

Narrowest part of east head connected to mainland completely eroded away
Sea almost went into the salt marsh behind
Sand dunes embryo dune ripped off and sand dune landslides still occur

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80
Q

What was the management and recovery of the UK west wittering storm surge?

A

Rock berm was built on the inside of the narrow hinge to secure the spit to the mainland
Marram grass was planted on the bank of new sand in order to stabilise it

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81
Q

What are the sediment sources in the coastal system?

A

Streams or rivers following the sea
Estuaries
Cliff erosion
Offshore and sand banks
Material from a biological origin

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82
Q

What is a sediment cell?

A

Stretch of coastline usually bordered from other areas by well defined boundaries e.g. Two headlands

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83
Q

What types of systems are sediment cells

A

Closed systems

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84
Q

What was the research concluded by the MAFF (now defra) 15 years ago about the coastline of England and Wales?

A

Can be divided into major sediment cells
→ Easier to manage the coasts
→ divided into sub-cells

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85
Q

What is a sediment budget and what are the losses and gains?

A

The balance between sediment being added to and removed within each sediment cell
Losses= transported and deposition into stores/ sediment sinks
Gains= coastal erosion or sediment brought into the system by river or offshore sources

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86
Q

What is the budget if more material is added to the cell than is removed and how does this affect the shoreline?

A

Positive budget
Shoreline builds towards sea

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87
Q

What is the budget when more material is removed from the cell than is added and how does this affect the shoreline?

A

Negative budget
Shoreline retreats landward

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88
Q

What can a sediment budget be used to identify?

A

The sources that deliver sediment to the cell

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89
Q

What does calculating the sediment budget for a cell require?

A

The identification of all the sediment sources and sinks
Extremely difficult to calculate

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90
Q

How can sediment be removed from the beach?

A

Erosion from severe storms
Destructive waves backwash
Longshore movement of sand

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91
Q

How can sediment be gained by the beach?

A

Movement of sand shorewards
Longshore transport of sand
Transport of sand along beach by wind

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92
Q

What is a UK example of a sub cell?

A

Christchurch bay in Dorset

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93
Q

To what extent can coastal protection measures disrupt the operation of a sediment cell and affects its budget?

A

Protects sediment sources

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94
Q

Define aeolian

A

Erosional, transportation and depositional processes by the wind

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95
Q

Define geomorphic

A

Relating to the formation and shaping of landforms and landscapes by natural processes

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96
Q

What are the 2 geomorphical processes?

A

Marine processes→ operate on coastline and connected with the sea
Sub-Ariel processes→ operate on and but affect the shape of the coastline

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97
Q

What are the 7 factors that affect the rate of erosion?

A

Wave steepness and breaking point
Fetch
Sea depth
Coastal configuration
Beach presence
Human activity
Geology

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98
Q

What is igneous rock and give an example?

A

Rocks become so not they melt to become liquid (molten rock) then it hardens
e.s. Granite, pumice

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99
Q

What is metamorphic rock give an example?

A

Layers of sediment heat up because of magma below plus lots of pressure
e.g. Marble

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100
Q

What is sedimentary rock and give an example?

A

Layers of tiny rocks and dirt squished together to form rock ( weakest rock)
e.g. Sandstone

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101
Q

Joints

A

Vertical cracks

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102
Q

Bedding planes

A

Horizontal cracks

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103
Q

Faults

A

Stress causes fracture

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104
Q

Permeability

A

How much things can pass through it

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105
Q

Porosity

A

Amount of holes in it

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106
Q

What is the tees -exe line?

A

Lies between river tees and exe
Divides the UK uplands and lowlands
Uplands- igneous, metamorphic rock
Lowlands- sedimentary rock

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107
Q

What is a discordant coastline?

A

Rocks run at right angles to the coast

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108
Q

What is a concordat coastline?

A

Rocks run parallel to the coast

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109
Q

Hydraulic action

A

Impact on rocks of the sheer force of the water itself (wave pounding)

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110
Q

Abrasion

A

Sandpapering effect

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111
Q

Corrosion

A

Transported material is hurled at the cliff face and chips away at rock

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112
Q

Wave quarrying

A

Breaking wave traps air in rock creating pressure

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113
Q

Attrition

A

Rocks slowly worn down into smaller and more rounded pieces

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114
Q

Solution/corrosion

A

Dissolving of calcium based rocks
Sea water ph 8.14 (down from 8.25 in the last 200 years)

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115
Q

Weathering

A

Sub-ariel
Break down the coastline

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116
Q

Oxidation

A

Rocks disintegrate when oxygen dissolved in some water reacts with some rock minerals

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117
Q

Hydration

A

Water saturates rock
Creaks cracks and widens joints

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118
Q

Carbonation

A

Carbon dioxide dissolve in rainwater reacts with calcium carbonate makes rocks easily dissolve in water
Fuels from om factories also contribute to this

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119
Q

Biological

A

Breakdown of rocks by the action of vegetation and coastal organisms

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120
Q

Mechanical / physical

A

Rainwater gets in the cracks of rocks
Freezes and expands
Pressure release

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121
Q

Traction

A

Large stones rolled along seabed

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122
Q

Saltation

A

Small stones bounce along seabed

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123
Q

Suspension

A

Small particles of sand and silt are carried along by moving water
Murky water

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124
Q

Solution

A

Dissolved materials are transported within the mass of moving water

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125
Q

Where does marine deposition often take place?

A

Where the waves are low energy

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126
Q

What are the situations when deposition occurs?

A
  • Sand and shingle accumulate faster than they ave removed
  • waves slow following breaking
  • water pauses at the top of the swash before backwash begins
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127
Q

What does aeolian relate to?

A

Entrainment, transport and deposition of sediment by wind

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128
Q

Surface creep

A

Wind rolls/slides sand grains along the surface

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129
Q

Saltation (aeolian)

A

Wind is strong enough to temporarily lift the grains into the airflow to heights of up to one metre for distances up to 20 to 30m

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130
Q

Mass movement

A

Movement of and commonly near a coastline and can happen rapidly or over time

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131
Q

Nature of mass movement dependent on 4 factors

A
  • Level of cohesion within the sediment
  • height of the slope and angle
  • Grain size within sediment
  • Temperature and level of saturation
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132
Q

Landslides

A

Occur on cliffs of softer rocks
Slip as a result of failure when lubricated → usually following heavy rainfall

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133
Q

Rockfalls

A

Occur from cliffs under cut by the sea
Or on slopes affected by mechanical weathering like frost action

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134
Q

Mudflows

A

Heavy rain can cause large quantities of fine material to flow downhill
Soil becomes saturated and excess water cannot percolate deeper
Surfaces layers become fluid and flow down hill

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135
Q

Rotational slip or slumping

A

Where softer material overlies much more resistant materials
With excessive lubrication who sections of the cliff face may move downwards with a side place that is concave producinga rotational movement

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136
Q

Soil creep

A

Very slow continuous movement of individual soil particles downslope
Presence of soil moisture is important

137
Q

Solifluction

A

Specific to cold periglacial environments
Summer→ surface layer of soil thaws out and becomes saturated as it lies on permafrost
Sodden soil with its blanket of vegetation slowly moves downhill
Forms solifluction lobes

138
Q

Run off

A

May take the form of a stream emerging in a bay taking with it large quantities of load during a flood or be a stream cascading over a cliff excavating a V-shaped groove

139
Q

Emergent coastline

A

Raised beach / marine platform
Abandoned diffs

140
Q

submergent coastline

A

Dalmatian coasts (parallel to coastline)
Ria
Fjord
Shingle beach

141
Q

How much mangrove is needed to reduce the destructive force of A tsunami by up to 90%

A

Mangrove section of 30 trees per 0.01 hectare and with a width of 100m

142
Q

Psammosere

A

Characteristic plant succession that develops on a new sand dune ecosystem and achieves/ on the way to achieving a climax community
Plants called psammophytes grow here

143
Q

Xerophytes

A

Species of plant that is adapted to living in dry conditions

144
Q

Flocculation

A

In the estuary the river water mixes with seawater and the charges on the clay particles may be neutralised
Particles stick together
Then settle → muddy shore

145
Q

Halophytes

A

Salt tolerant plant that grows in soil or water of high salinity

146
Q

Isostatic sea level change

A

Local Changes in sea level resulting from the land rising or falling
Over a long period of time
Land sinks due to weight of Ice sheets

147
Q

Eustatic change

A

Global change in sea level resulting from the land rising or falling
Climate change

148
Q

Are coastal landscapes static or not?

A

Not static

149
Q

What landforms does erosion form?

A

Headlands, bays, cliffs, wavecut platforms, geos, blowholes, arches, stacks and stumps

150
Q

UK example of erosion landforms
Bay and headlands

A

Lulworth cove, Purbeck, Dorset (concordant)
Swanage Bay, Dorset (concordant)

151
Q

Example beyond the UK of erosion landforms
Bay and headlands

A

San Francisco Bay, California, USA (concordant)

152
Q

Wave cut notch

A

Waves concentrated on one area of the rock face
Cliffs begins to be undercut

153
Q

Wave cut platform

A

Cliff collapses
Cliff line retreats a gentle slope forms

154
Q

UK example of erosion
Cliffs and waves cut platforms

A

Flamborough head, Holderness coast, East England

155
Q

Example of erosion landforms beyond UK
Cliffs and wave cut platforms

A

Australian coastline - 12 apostles

156
Q

How does tidal zone impact erosion?

A

Continually exposed to marine erosion- increases weaknesses in rock surface can be exploited

157
Q

geo

A

Narrow steep sided inlet in a cliff
Horizontal collapse

158
Q

Blowhole

A

Vertical erosion (collapse)

159
Q

What landforms come from deposition?

A

Beaches, spits, tombolos, bars, sand dunes, mud flats and salt marshes

160
Q

Stash aligned beach

A

Oriented parallel to the incoming wave crests
Experience minimal longshore drift
Irregular coastlines where longshore drift is impeded and waves hit sections of the coast head on

161
Q

Drift aligned beaches

A

Generally orientated parallel to the direction of the dominant longshore drift
Considerable amounts of sediment transported long distances along them
Regular coastline
Wave direction is at an angle to the beach

162
Q

What is a storm beach?

A

Ridge made of the biggest boulders thrown by the largest waves

163
Q

Simple spit

A

Either straight or recurved
Do not have minor spits, or recurved ridges, along their landward edge

164
Q

Compound spits

A

Similar features to simple spits
Have a number of recurved ridges, or minor spits, along their landward side, possibly marking the position where they terminated in past

165
Q

How does refraction play a role in the making of spits?

A

Refraction curves the end of the spit

166
Q

How does refraction play a role in the making of spits?

A

Refraction curves the end of the spit

167
Q

Tombolo

A

A spit that joins an island to the mainland

168
Q

Bar

A

Spit develops across a bay

169
Q

Offshore bars /sandbar

A

Submerged or partly exposed ridges of sand or course sediment
Created by waves offshore from the coast
Absorb wave energy reducing the impacts of waves on the coastline

170
Q

Barrier beach

A

Elongated bank of deposited sand or shingle lying parallel to the coastline and not submerged by incoming tides
Beach or spit extends across a bay to join two headlands

171
Q

Barrier islands

A

Beach becomes separated from the mainland it is referred to as a barrier island

172
Q

UK example of a tombolo

A

Ninians Shetland islands

173
Q

Example beyond UK of a tombolo

A

The Angel Road of of Shodo island, Japan

174
Q

Uk example of a spit

A

East head spit west wittering

175
Q

Example beyond UK of a spit

A

Sandy hook, New Jersey, USA

176
Q

Holocene

A

Roughly the time since the end of the last glacial period some 12000 years ago

177
Q

Sand dunes

A

Accumulations of sand shaped into mounds by the wind

178
Q

Inputs for a sand dune

A

Sand washed onshore by constructive waves
Strong onshore winds that will blow dried sand to the back of the beach
Large tidal range (sand can dry)
Obstacle to trap the sand
Vegetation growth to encourage further growth of the dune
Sand moved inland by the process of saltation

179
Q

Embryo dunes

A

First dudes to develop
Pioneer species colonise the dune
Upward growth of sand dune

180
Q

Abiotic

A

Non living factors

181
Q

Biotic

A

Living factors

182
Q

Succession

A

The change in species in an ecosystem over time

183
Q

Zonation

A

The change in species over space

184
Q

UK example of a sand dune

A

Saunton Sands, Devon/ West Wittering/ Studland, Dorset

185
Q

Example beyond UK of a sand dune

A

Bolonia, Cadiz, Spain

186
Q

Mudflats

A

Develop on sheltered shorelines
Often located in estuaries
Low lying areas and submerged by high tide
Flocculation

187
Q

What do mudflats develop into over time

A

Salt marshes

188
Q

How does mud flats develop into a salt marsh?

A

Low lying vegetation begins to grow on mudflats
Pioneers colonise the area e.g. Glasswort, sea elite and spartina
Develops a dense mat of vegetation
Vegetation traps particles of silt
Mud levels rise
Land is now rarely covered by the sea

189
Q

UK example of a mudflat

A

Morecambe bay mudflats

190
Q

Example of mudflat beyond the UK

A

Cape Code Massachusetts

191
Q

Deltas

A

Large areas of sediment found at the mouths of many rivers

192
Q

Deltas typically form where

A

Rivers entering the sea are carrying large sediment loads
a broad continental shelf margin exists at the river mouth to provide a platform for sediment accumulation
Low energy environments exist in the coastal area
Tidal ranges are low

193
Q

Cuspate delta

A

A pointed extension to the coastline occurs when sediment accumulates but this is shaped by regular, gentle currents from opposite directions

194
Q

Arcuate delta

A

Sufficient sediment supply is available for the denta to grow seawards, but wave action is strong enough to smooth and trim its leading edge

195
Q

Birds foot delta

A

Distributaries build out from the coast in a branching pattern, with river sediment supply exceeding the rates of removal by waves and currents

196
Q

Mangroves

A

Shrubs or small trees that grow in coastal saline or brackish water in the tropics and subtropics
Between latitudes of 30°N and 30°s
Shallow root systems
Home to many species
Obstacle to wind and waves
Tree the captures carbon, filters water, and protects coastlines

197
Q

What does coral need to survive?

A

Clear water
Salt water
Clean water
Sunlight
Temperatures

198
Q

Fringing reef

A

Grow near coastlines
Around islands and continents
Separated by shallow lagoons
Most common we see
e.g. Bahamas, caribbean sea

199
Q

Barrier reef

A

Parallel to the coastline
Separated by deeper wider lagoons
e.g. Great barrier reef, Australia

200
Q

Atoll (reef)

A

Rings of coral that create A protected lagoon in the middle
Located in the middle of the sea
Form when sea level rises or islands sink into the sea
Can be around underwater volcanoes
e.g. Lighthouse reef, Caribbean Sea

201
Q

2 types of sea level change

A

eustatic change
Isostatic change

202
Q

Isostatic

A

Local change
over a very long period of time
Sea level falls as the hydrological cycle slows down
Emergent landforms

203
Q

Eustatic

A

Global change
Ice sheets melt ocean is replenished
Submergent landforms

204
Q

Ria

A

Rising sea levels drowning river valley
Gentle sloping sides

205
Q

What are the valley sides of a ria?

A

Gently sloping

206
Q

What is the rias plan view?

A

Winding, reflecting the original route of the river and its valley

207
Q

Example of a Ria

A

Padstown, north coast of Cornwall

208
Q

Fjord

A

Drowned glacial valley

209
Q

Fjord valley

A

Steep valley sides
Straight and narrow
U-shaped

210
Q

Fjord example

A

Milford sound in New Zealand

211
Q

Dalmatian coast

A

Drowned concordat coastlines
Landscape of ridges and valleys running parallel to the coast

212
Q

Dalmatian coast example

A

Coast of Croatia

213
Q

Shingle beach

A

Sea level falls as the volume of and based ice grows → new land emerges
Sediment accumulates on this surface

214
Q

Shingle beach example

A

Chesil beach

215
Q

Coastal management aim

A

Provide defence against, and mitigate the impacts of flooding
Provide protection against, and mitigate the impacts of coastal erosion

216
Q

Hard engineering

A

Physical change to the coastal landscape using resistant materials like concrete boulders, wood and metal

217
Q

Soft engineering

A

Using natural systems for coastal defence, such as beaches, dunes and salt marshes which can absorb and adjust to wave and tidal energy

218
Q

Revetments

A

Hard engineering
Concrete or wooden structures placed to take full force of the wave energy
Inexpensive
Intrusive and unnatural looking
High maintenance

219
Q

Sea walls

A

Hard engineering
Concrete walls dissipate wave energy
Prevention of erosion
Promenade for people to walk along
Intrusive and unnatural looking
Reflect wave energy rather than absorbing it
Expensive to build and maintain

220
Q

Rock armour

A

Hard engineering
Large boulders take full force of the waves
Check and easy to construct/maintain
Used for recreation
Very intrusive
Rocks usually not local and look out of place
Dangerous

221
Q

Gabions

A

Hard engineering
Small boulders contained within steel wire mesh cages
Protect cliff from wave energy
Easy to handle and transport
Good drainage
Difficult to install
More expensive than vegetated slope

222
Q

Groins

A

Hard engineering
Wooden, stone or steel breakwaters built
Control longshore drift
Work with natural processes to build up the beach
Not too expensive (£5000- 10000 each)
Starves beaches further along the coast of fresh sediment
Natural and unattractive

223
Q

Cliff fixing / slope stabilisation

A

Hard engineering
Driving iron bars into cliff face to stabilise it and to absorb some wave power
Reduces risk of injury/death from cliff slumping
Enhances development of buildings of the cliff
Unattractive to look at
Ongoing maintenance costs

224
Q

Offshore reefs

A

Hard engineering
Force waves to break offshore
Effective permeable barrier
Enhance wildlife habitat
Can be visually unappealing because of what’s been sunk
Navigation hazard for boats

225
Q

Barrages

A

Hard engineering
Large structures built to present flooding on major estuaries
Acts as a dam
Generate electricity by tidal power
Create renewable tidal power
Very expensive
Alter habitat for wildlife
Not beautiful to look at

226
Q

Beach nourishment

A

Soft engineering
Replaces material that has been lost through longshore drift
Check and easy to maintain
Looks natural
Increases tourist potential
Needs constant maintenance
£3000 /km

227
Q

Dune regeneration

A

Soft engineering
Replanting venerable areas
Selective grazing
Restricting access
Broadwalks for tourists
Maintains natural environment
Provides wildlife habitat
Cheap and sustainable
Time consuming

228
Q

Managed retreat

A

Soft engineering
Abandoning the current line of sea defences and developing the exposed land in some way
Reduce wave power
Relatively cheap (£5000- 10000 hectare)
Creates natural buffer to powerful waves
Important wildlife habitat
Agricultural land may be lost
Landowners need to be compensated

229
Q

Land-use management

A

Soft engineering
Involves dressing peoples behaviour and educating the local community
Cheap
Could be local conflict

230
Q

Do nothing

A

Soft engineering
Cheap
Good for environment
May be conflict

231
Q

Raised beaches

A

Emergent feature
Areas of former wave-cut platforms
Old cliffs behind beach
Isostatic rising of the land

232
Q

2 ways in which the volume of the ocean is increasing

A

Ice is released into the ocean as it melts
Thermal expansion of the oceans

233
Q

Changes in sea level are the result of two processes

A

Increases in the volume of the ocean
Subsidence of the coast

234
Q

Soft engineering uk example

A

Abbots hall farm
Blackwater estuary, Essex, east England
2002
280 hectares of land

235
Q

Why was coastal management used on abbots hall farm?

A

Protect sea defences
Restoration of salt marsh habitat
Habitat has been in decline because of human demands, rising sea levels and an increase in storm frequency

236
Q

How was managed retreat used in abbots hall farm?

A

Coir roll (sustainable coconut waste)
Increases sediment build up
Decrease further erosion
Create a healthier salt marsh

237
Q

Spa

A

Special protected area

238
Q

SSSI

A

Site of special scientific interest

239
Q

Who was involved in the managed retreat of abbots hall farm?

A

Environment agency
Essex wildlife trust and volunteers
English nature
World wildlife fund

240
Q

Aims of the abbots hall farm project?

A

Support the Essex wildlife trust
Provide leisure and recreation facilities
To show now farming and nature conservation can work together
To show now coastal areas can be protected with out the need for heavy engineering
To increase the nurses environment for shellfish and fish

241
Q

Why was abbots hall farm suitable for managed realignment

A

Only a narrow strip of land between the existing 3km sea wall and the 5m contour line
Land was flooded and fully developed as a salt marsh

242
Q

Coastal squeeze

A

The loss of natural habitats or deterioration of their quality arising from anthropogenic structures or actions

243
Q

Hard engineering uk example

A

Heysham and Morecambe
Lancashire county council
1989 - 2007
8.5km
£28 million
Improve the potential for sustainable management

244
Q

Hold the line

A

Refer in the existing coastline by maintaining current defences or building new one

245
Q

Do nothing but monitor

A

Some stretches of coastline are not viable to undertake defence work

246
Q

Retreat the line

A

Actively manage the rate and process by which the coast retreats

247
Q

Advance the line

A

Build new defences seaward of the existing line

248
Q

5 strategies of hard engineering used in heysham and Morecambe

A

Rock armour
Breakwaters or rock groins
Traditional recurved sea wall
Gabions
Concrete revetments and sea wall

249
Q

What was sustainable about heysham and Morecambe coastal management?

A

Quarries less than 10 km away reducing carbon footprint
Limestone was an origin rock of the coastline

250
Q

What are the 4 options of coastal defence?

A

Hold the line
No nothing but monitor
Retreat the line
Advance the line

251
Q

SMPS

A

Shoreline management plans
1995
22 around the coast of England and Wales
Short term (0 - 20 years)
Medium term (20 - 50 years)
Long term (50 - 100 years)
→ key features (revise)

252
Q

ICZM

A

Integrated coastal zone management
Information collecting, planning, decision making, management and monitoring of implementation

253
Q

MSP

A

Maritime spatial planning

254
Q

Coral atoll islands in the Maldives

A

1200

255
Q

Total land area of Maldives

A

300 km2

256
Q

Population Maldives

A

400000

257
Q

Highest point Maldives

A

2.4M

258
Q

Birth rate Maldives

A

15.6 /1000

259
Q

Death rate Maldives

A

3.8/1000

260
Q

Population <25 years old Maldives

A

44%

261
Q

Life expectancy Maldives

A

75

262
Q

Net migration Maldives

A
  • 12.7 /1000
263
Q

Maldives climate

A

Tropical
Dry season november-march
Wet season (monsoon) june-august

264
Q

Maldives opportunities for human migration

A
  • Farming, 10% of land suitable for agriculture, fishing and exchanging goods with traders crossing the Indian Ocean
  • globalisation process via tourism, clothing and fishing for export
  • tropical climate provides activities such as exploring the underwater landscapes and ecosystems of coral reefs
    -popular long haul destination
  • tourism aimed at the luxury end of the market
  • 30% of GDP is tourism
265
Q

Maldives risks for human occupation

A
  • Physical geography
  • Increasing periods of inundation and enhanced wave erosion pose threat
266
Q

Maldives employment structure

A

Primary (agriculture and fishing) 15%
Manufacturing industry 15%
Services 70%
Unemployment rate 28%

267
Q

Maldives ocean acidification

A

Oceans are a significant sink for carbon
Estimated 30% of anthropogenic Co2 produced over 250 years has been absorbed by oceans
Without absorption level would have gone past a critical tipping point
→ of concern is that as surface water temperature rises the ability of the water to absorb Co2 reduces
Rapid change in oceans pH
Consequences for marine organisms and ecosystems
Fallen from 8.2 to 8.1 → acidification

268
Q

Maldives management of risks

A

Mitigate and adapt
- ‘land claim’ e.g. Construction of Hulhumalé a new artificial island based around an existing atoll built from coral and sediment dredged from seabead
‘City of Hope’ protected by 3m sea wall
Population of 130000 by 2023
- Japan paid us$60 million for a sustainable sea wall around capital malé

269
Q

Resilience

A

Sustained ability of individuals or communities to be able to utilize available resources
Minimize the effects of the event

270
Q

Mitigation

A

Designed to reduce or eliminate risks to people and property from natural hazards
Reduce the impact

271
Q

Adaptation

A

Attempts by people or communities to live with a hazardous event
Adjusting their living conditions
Reduce their levels of vulnerability

272
Q

Median age Kiribati

A

25 years

273
Q

Infant mortality Kiribati

A

31.1 deaths / 1000 live births

274
Q

Fertility rate Kiribati

A

2.34 children born /women

275
Q

Life expectancy Kiribati

A

66.9 years

276
Q

Electricity from fossil fuels Kiribati

A

73%

277
Q

Kiribati

A

Island country in Pacific Ocean
33 islands
Most are low lying atolls
Sea level rising 1.2cm a year 4x faster than global average

278
Q

What next for Kiribati?

A

2014 president anote tong purchased 20 km2 of land on a Fiji island
Used for agriculture and fish farming projects
Migration with dignity project to allow people to apply for jobs in neighbouring countries

279
Q

Environmental refugees

A

People forced to migrate as a result of changes to the environment

280
Q

Global warming

A

Average global temperatures rose by 0.85°C from 1880 to 2012
1870 - 2010 average sea levels rose by 21cm
Polar ice sheets are melting and thermal expansion
Low-lying regions are at serious risk and harm

281
Q

Kiribati challenges and risks

A
  • Rising sea, flooding, losing land, salination of farmland
  • contamination of water, loss of culture and identity, loss of indigenous spiritual land, homes flooding, prospects for young people limited
  • some sea walls collapse at high tide, no long-term plan/ government funding
282
Q

Kiribati solutions

A
  • Planting mangroves protect against storms and soil erosion
  • building make shift sea walls from coral and sand bags
  • asking industrialised countries to reduce carbon emissions
  • migration
  • moving/rebuilding houses
  • building higher sea walls
283
Q

What is most of Bangladesh situated on?

A

Deltas of large rivers flowing from the Himalayas

284
Q

Natural hazards in Bangladesh

A

Droughts
Cyclones

285
Q

What was Bangladesh formerly known as?

A

East Pakistan after the 1947 partition from India
Independence from Pakistan in 1971

286
Q

Post partition issues in Bangladesh

A

Where some of the people should live due to cultural, linguistic, racial, ethnic and religious divides and identities

287
Q

Bangladesh religions

A

Muslim 89%
Hindu 10%

288
Q

Bangladesh climate

A

Tropical
Mild winter (October to march)
Hot humid summer (march to June)
Humid warm rainy monsoon (June to october)

289
Q

Bangladesh mean elevation

A

85m

290
Q

Bangladesh agricultural land use

A

70.1%

291
Q

Bangladesh population

A

164,098,818

292
Q

Bangladesh birth rate

A

17.88/1000

293
Q

Bangladesh literacy rate

A

74.7%

294
Q

Bangladesh life expectancy

A

74.43

295
Q

What is the sundarbans made of?

A

Mangrove forests

296
Q

Sundarbans background info

A

Coastal zone occupying the worlds largest delta
Extends over 10000 km2 of southern Bangladesh
Formed from sediment deposited from three rivers
Mangrove forests and swamps
Large parts protected as a national park
World heritage site
Natural state of dynamic equilibrium

297
Q

Sundarbans coastal processes

A

Tidal action shapes landscape
Network of interconnecting river channels

Non-cohesive sediments washed out strong south westerly monsoon winds then blow them into large ranges of sand dunes
Protection of the dunes
Vegetation establishes

298
Q

Challenges and opportunities of the sundarbans

A
  • Flat and fertile land ideal for growing crops like rice
  • mangrove forests extremely important for the ecosystem, local populations
  • provides a wide range of goods and services
  • many from outside view as uninhabitable
299
Q

Sundarbans goods produced

A

Fuel
Construction materials
Fishing materials
Household items
Food and drink
Textiles

300
Q

Sundarbans services

A

Protection
Provision
Maintenance
Value

301
Q

Natural challenges to people living in sundarbans

A

Coastal flooding
Cyclones
High levels of salinity in the soil
Instability of the islands
Accessibility and remoteness
Human eating tigers

302
Q

Human induced challenges to people living in sundarbans

A

Over exploitation of coastal resources from vulnerable habitats
Lack of awareness of the environmental and economic importance of the region
Destructive fishing techniques
Conversion of wetlands to intensive agriculture and settlements
Resource-use conflicts
Lack of awareness of coastal issues by decision makers

303
Q

Global commons

A

Atmosphere
Moon
High sea
Antarctica

304
Q

Tragedy of the commons

A

When individuals overconsume A resource at expense of society

305
Q

How many live below the poverty line in the sundarbans

A

50%

306
Q

How many cannot afford education in the sundarbans

A

44%

307
Q

Resilience in sundarbans

A
  • Public health engineering department is increasing access to clean water and sanitation
  • better roads and bridges being built
  • subsided solar panels are being made available to remote villages
  • farm subsides
  • NGOs are offering training in sustainable methods of fishing and farming
308
Q

Mitigation in the sundarbans

A
  • 3500 km of embankments were built to prevent flooding
  • coastal management projects to replant mangrove forests
  • government and NGOs have provided funding for cyclone shelters
309
Q

Adapting to the sundarbans

A
  • Salt resistant varieties of rice are being grown
  • projects underway to increase tourism and promote ecotourism
  • adapt to sea level rise e.g. Houses on stilts
  • non-instructive farming practices
310
Q

Opportunities for sustainable development in the future in the sundarbans

A
  • Many international and national designations already in place
  • opportunities for eco-tourism in the mangrove forest and wetland areas
  • recent investment to improve communications in the region
311
Q

Bangladesh ICZM

A

Integrated coastal zone management

312
Q

Government agreements - India and Bangladesh

A

1972 - joint rivers commission to manage the 54 common rivers that flow from India to Bangladesh
2011 - memorandum of understanding for conservation of sundarbans

313
Q

Tropical monsoon

A

Seasonal reversal of winds
Wet and dry phase

314
Q

El Niño

A

Cyclical climate event in the Pacific Ocean around the equator
Can affect weather around the world
Can raise global temp
Reversal of winds

315
Q

La Niña

A

El Niño goes back to neutral it can reverse into La Niña
Strengthening of the trade winds
Pushes the warmer water to the far western tropical pacific

316
Q

ENSO

A

El Niño southern oscillation
Southern oscillation term for atmospheric pressure changes between the east and west tropical pacific

317
Q

IOD

A

Indian Ocean dipole

Natural and irregular change in sea temp in the Indian Ocean
Can be positive, negative and neutral
Intensify is different each year
Discovered 1999

318
Q

Location of the Holderness coast

A

North east UK coast
East of the city hull

319
Q

Length of the holderness coast

A

61 km

320
Q

Erosion rate of holderness coast

A

2-12m per year

321
Q

Sediment cell number in holderness coast

A

2

322
Q

Holderness coast 3 distinct coastal units

A

Flamborough Head
Bridlington Bay to Spurn head
Spurn head

323
Q

holderness bedrock

A

Till ‘boulder clays’
Deposited by glaciers 12000 years ago

324
Q

holderness rock type

A

Sedimentary

325
Q

Other physical factors at work along coastline
holderness coast

A
  • North east winds create powerful waves (long fetch)
  • destructive waves
  • tides and lower energy environment of the humber estuary allow sediment to collect
  • low pressure areas from North Sea
  • rain brought by storms
    -low frequency and high magnitude events
326
Q

Main 5 factors which account for the rapid rate of erosion
holderness coast

A
  • Long fetch and powerful waves
  • weak and unconsolidated till cliffs
  • mass movement
  • narrow beach
  • lack of coastal defences
327
Q

Flamborough head

A
  • Horizontal chalk layers
  • joints
  • wave refraction
  • mass movement
  • no coastal defence
328
Q

Bridlington

A
  • Tourism
  • fishing community
  • sea birds
  • 4.7m sea wall and timber groynes
329
Q

Skipsea

A
  • 16 km south of Bridlington
  • small concrete wall to protect residential area
330
Q

Hornsea

A
  • Small town between Bridlington and withernsea
  • 2.9 km shoreline
  • high density urban development
  • economically dependant on tourism
  • protected by concrete sea wall, timber groynes and riprap
331
Q

Mappleton

A
  • Village 3km south of Hornsea
  • intense erosion
  • edge of cliff
  • management has caused erosion further down the coastline
332
Q

Withernsea

A
  • Seaside resort town
  • groynes and sea wall
333
Q

Easington

A
  • Small village of 700 people
  • site for easington gas terminal (25% Britains gas supply)
  • village is not protected
  • generates sediment that feeds the sediment cell
334
Q

Spurn head

A

End is stable due to plant growth
Most of spit has flexible road surface
Eastern side is protected by groynes and riprap
Houses lifeboat men as well as wildlife
Number estuary is a busy shipping point
Temporary sediment store or sink
Extremely narrow

335
Q

Holderness coast shoreline management plan
Do nothing

A

Flamborough head
Easington village
Spurn peninsula

336
Q

Holderness coast shoreline management plan
Hold the line

A

Bridlington
Hornsea
Mappleton
Withersea
Easington gas terminal

337
Q

Define sustainability as stated by Brundtland Commission in 1987

A

Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

338
Q

Holderness coast impacts of coastal erosion

A

Homes destroyed
Businesses destroyed
Wildlife habitats lost
Danger for tourists
Loss of community
Damage to coastal protection
Emotional stress
Loss of agriculture land
Conflict

geography (3 decks)

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