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Cog (Summer 2019) > Cog Final > Flashcards

Cog Final Flashcards

1
Q

How emotions relate to cognitions

A

Historically in cog info processing paradigms affect was treated as a source of disruption or noise

Types of influence:

Cognitive antecedents of affect (cognitive bases that influence emotion)

Cognitive consequences of affect (affect influencing how we process information)

Past affective states can be interpreted through appraisal-like processes

Cognitive processes determine emotional reactions
AND
Affective states influence how people remember, perceive, interpret situations, and make decisions

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2
Q

7 steps of perceptual process

A
  1. Stimulus in the environment
  2. Light is reflected and focused
  3. Receptor processes
  4. Neural processing
  5. Perception
  6. Recognition
  7. Action –> Step 1
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3
Q

Good continuation

A

Gestalt principle

Lines are seen as following the smoothest path

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4
Q

Pragnanz

A

Gestalt Principle

Every stimulus is seen as simply as possible

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5
Q

Similarity

A

Gestalt Principle

Similar things are grouped together

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6
Q

Proximity

A

Gestalt Principle

things that are near to each other are grouped together

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7
Q

Common fate

A

Gestalt Principle

things moving in the same direction are grouped together

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8
Q

Common region

A

Gestalt principle

elements in the same region tend to be grouped together

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9
Q

Uniform Connectedness

A

Gestalt Principle

connected region of visual properties are percieved as a unit

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10
Q

Properties of figure and groudn

A

The figure is more “thinglike” and more memorable than the ground.
The figure is seen in front of the ground.
The ground is more uniform and extends behind figure.
The contour separating figure from the ground belongs to the figure (border ownership).

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11
Q

Perceiving scenes

A

Information within the image determines perception-grouping.

Areas lower in the field of view are more likely to be perceived as a figure.

Gibson and Peterson experiment
-Figure-ground formation can be affected by the meaningfulness of a stimulus.

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12
Q

Role of inference in perception

A

Theory of unconscious inference

Created by Helmholtz (1866/1911) to explain why stimuli can be interpreted in more than one way

Likelihood principle: objects are perceived based on what is most likely to have caused the pattern

Modern researchers use Bayesian inference that take probabilities into account.

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13
Q

Discrete emotions theory

A

Small number of basic/core emotions

Different biological bases

Serve different evolutionary functions

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14
Q

Panas

A

Scales to measure one’s experience of positive and negative affect
As we develop, we tend to experience more positive and less negative affect
Carstensen’s Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

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15
Q

Other contributing factors to affect

A

We are also interested in how affect influences how we appraise and interact with our environment (antecedent) and how we remember and reflect on it (consequent)

Factors such as age, individual difference variables, mental health status, if there’s a time limitation can influence how we interact with both positive and negative (affective) information in the environment (relative to neutral or non-emotional information)

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16
Q

Scanning a scene

A

Visual scanning – looking from place to place
Fixation
Saccadic eye movement
Overt attention involves looking directly at the attended object.
Covert attention refers to attention without looking.

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17
Q

What directs our attention

A

Characteristics of the scene:

Visual salience: areas of stimuli that attract attention due to their properties

Color, contrast, and orientation are relevant properties.

Attentional capture

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18
Q

Cognitive factors of attention

A

Picture meaning and observer knowledge

Attention can be influenced by a person’s goals

Timing of when people look at specific places is determined by the sequence of actions involved in the task.

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19
Q

Selective Attention

A
  • texting and driving example
  • you successfully selectively attend to driving if you ignore incoming texts while driving
  • you are deliberately prioritizing one task at the expense of another
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20
Q

Divided Attention

A
  • aka multitasking
  • perhaps task switching?
  • we deliberately attempt to attend to two tasks at once (and we aren’t very good at it-despite believing otherwise)
  • trying to text AND drive is really texting sometimes, driving other times
  • with a limited attentional system, this is really hard (impossible?) to truly do
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21
Q

Change blindness

A

Observers were shown a picture with and without a missing element in an alternating fashion with a blank screen.
Results showed that the pictures had to alternate a number of times before the change was detected.
When a cue is added to show where to attend, observers noticed the change more quickly.

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22
Q

Emotion and Attention

A

Many change blindness studies use neutral objects, but emotions hold particular relevance for us
-Emotional objects can be attention grabbing in and of themselves
-Negative objects may be especially noticeable
-Age-related influences to consider- positivity bias- older adults tend to gravitate toward positive information/ younger adults toward negative information
-The type of change matters- is it appearing or disappearing?
Puppy appearing vs. disappearing
Armed intruder appearing vs. disappearing

Also complicates top-down and bottom-up processing

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23
Q

Sensory Memory

A

Initial stage that holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second

The retention, for brief periods of time, of the effects of sensory stimulation.

-Information decays very quickly

Persistence of vision: retention of the perception of light

  • Sparkler’s trail of light
  • Frames in film

Holds large amount of information for a short period of time

  • Collects information
  • Holds information for initial processing
  • Fills in the blank
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24
Q

Short-term memory

A

Holds five to seven items for about 15 to 20 seconds (makes sense in practical terms because we often don’t need to memorize more than 7 items)

Includes both new information received from the sensory stores and information recalled from long-term memory

Bi-directional with LTM

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25
Q

Long-term memory

A

Can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades

Anything longer than 30 seconds

Encoded by hippocampus

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26
Q

Control Processes (memory)

A

active processes that can be controlled by the person

Rehearsal

Strategies used to make a stimulus more memorable

Strategies of attention that help you focus on specific stimuli

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27
Q

Capacity of Sensory Memory

A

Measuring the capacity and duration of sensory memory (Sperling, 1960)
Array of letters flashed quickly on a screen
Participants asked to report as many as possible
Whole report method: participants asked to report as many as could be seen
Average of 4.5 out of 12 letters (37.5%)

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28
Q

Proactive interference

A

short-term memory problem

occurs when information learned previously interferes with learning new information

Example: Your native language may make it more difficult to learn and remember a new foreign language

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29
Q

Retroactive Interference

A

occurs when new learning interferes with remembering old learning

Example: After you get a new telephone number and use it for a while, you may have difficulty remembering your old phone number

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30
Q

Chunking

A

Short term memory technique

small units can be combined into larger meaningful units

Chunk is a collection of elements strongly associated with one another but weakly associated with elements in other chunks

Phone numbers are a good example

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31
Q

Working Memory

A

limited capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning

WM has trouble when similar types of information are presented at the same time

Vogel et al. (2005) results:
High-capacity participants were more efficient at ignoring the distractors

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32
Q

Phonological Loop

A

How to get visual and auditory information into the short term memory store

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33
Q

Visuospatial sketch pad

A

How to get visual and spatial information into short term memory store

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34
Q

Phonological similarity effect

A

Letters or words that sound similar are confused

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35
Q

Word-length effect

A

Memory for lists of words is better for short words tahn for long words

Take longer to rehearse long words and to produce them during recall

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36
Q

Episodic Buffer

A

Backup store that communicates with LTM and WM components

Hold information longer and has greater capacity than phonological loop or visuospatial sketch pad

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37
Q

Serial Position

A

Evident in Murdoch LTM study

Items at the beginning of the list (primacy effect) and end of the list (recency effect) people remember more

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38
Q

Episodic memory

A

type of declarative LTM

memory for personal events

Involves mental time travel (no guarantee of accuracy)

Episodic can be lost, leaving only semantic

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39
Q

Semantic Memory

A

type of declarative LTM

facts and knowledge

Does not involve mental time travel (general knowledge)

Can be enhanced if associated with episodic

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40
Q

Autobiographical memory

A

Memory of specific experience

Can include semantic and episodic memory

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41
Q

Personal semantic memory

A

semantic memories that have personal significance

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42
Q

Implicit/non-declarative

A

Type of LTM

Unconscious memory that influences behavior

  • Procedural (skill) memory
  • Classical conditioning
  • Priming: previous experience changes response without conscious awareness
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43
Q

Explicit/declarative

A

Type of LTM

Unconcious memory

Episodic: personal events/episodes

Semantic: facts/knowledge

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44
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

Repetition of stimuli that maintains info but does not transfer it to LTM

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45
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

Using meanings and connections to help transfer info to LTM

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46
Q

Levels of processing theory

A

Memory depends on how info is encoded

Degree to which info is processed affects how likely it is to be encoded

Shallow processing: no attention to meaning, focus on physical, poor memory

Deep processing: close attention to meaning, better memory

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47
Q

Other factors that aid encoding memories

A

Visual imagery

Self-reference effect

Generation effect

Organizing to-be-remembered information (ex: keeping info thematic)

Relating words to survival value (ex: deciding how useful something is on a desert island)

Retrieval practice

Having a mental framework for item ahead of time

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48
Q

Testing effect (memory)

A

Being tested on material improves memory better than rereading material

Roediger and Karpicke (2006)

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49
Q

Retrieval cue

A

Cue that helps retrieve information from LTM

Retrieval cues most effective when created by person who uses them

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50
Q

Encoding specificity

A

More similar test and study environment is better people will perform (can be mood, noise level, location, etc.)

Matching environment serves as a cue

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51
Q

Consolidation

A

Transforms new memories from fragile state to more permanent state

  • Synaptic consolidation occurs at synapses, happens rapidly
  • Systems consolidation involves gradual reorganization of circuits in brain

Muller and Pilzecker (1900)

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52
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

Memory/information storage at the synapse

Enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation

Structural changes and enhanced responding over time

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53
Q

Multiple trace hypothesis

A

Questions the assumption that the hippocampus is important only at the beginning of consolidation

The hippocampus has been shown to be activated during retrieval of both recent and remote memories (Gilboa et al., 2004)

The response of the hippocampus can change over time (Viskontas and coworkers, 2009)

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54
Q

Reminiscence Bump

A

Participants over the age of 40 asked to recall events in their lives

Memory is high for recent events and for events that occurred in adolescence and early adulthood (between 10 and 30 years of age)

Self-image hypothesis:

  • Memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person’s self-image or life identity is being formed
  • People assume identities during adolescence and young adulthood
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55
Q

Memory for emotional stimuli

A

Emotional events remembered more easily and vividly

Emotion improves memory, becomes greater with time (may enhance consolidation)

Brain activity in amygdala

Weapons focus: tendency to attend to a weapon during a crime

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56
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

Memory for circumstances surrounding shocking, highly charged important events (ex: 9/11)

Flashbulbs are not “photograph” memories, as they can change with the passage of time

These memories can be inaccurate or lacking in detail even though participants report that they are very confident and that the memories seem very vivid

Rimelle and coworkers (2011)
-Memories for negative emotional pictures were stronger, and associated with greater confidence

Narrative rehearsal hypothesis: repeated viewing/hearing of event through media and talking with others

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57
Q

Bartlett’s “war of the ghosts” experiment

A

Example of how memory is constructive

Had participants attempt to remember a story from a different culture over and over again

Results:

Over time, reproduction became shorter, contained omissions and inaccuracies

Changed to make the story more consistent with their own culture

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58
Q

Source monitoring

A

Source memory: process of determining origins of our memories

Source monitoring error: misidentifying source of memory
Also called “source misattributions”

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59
Q

Cryptoamnesia

A

Unconscious plagiarism of another’s work due to a lack of recognition of its original source

Example of source monitoring error

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60
Q

Making inferences

A

Memory can be influenced by inferences that people make based on their experiences and knowledge

Memory often includes information that is implied by or is consistent with the to-be-remembered information but was not explicitly stated

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61
Q

Schemas and Scripts

A

Schema: knowledge about some aspect of the environment

Script: conception of sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular experience

Schemas and scripts influence memory (Memory can include information not actually experienced but inferred because it is expected and consistent with the schema)

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62
Q

Advantages of construction of memory

A

Allows us to “fill in the blanks” - mental shortcut, efficient

Cognition is creative

Understand language

Solve problems

Make decisions

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63
Q

Disadvantages of construction of memory

A

Sometimes we make errors

Sometimes we misattribute the source of information

Was it actually presented, or did we infer it?

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64
Q

Misinformation effect

A

misleading information presented after a person witnesses an event can change how that person describes the event later

aka misleading postevent information (MPI)

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65
Q

False memories

A

When someone has a memory of something that never happened because of an external influence (e.g. an experimenter recounting personal events but adding information)

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66
Q

Errors in eyewitness testimony

A

Errors due to suggestion (suggestive questioning)

Misinformation effect

Confirming bias/feedback (we focus on the memory/information that supports our idea of what happened instead of the truth)

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67
Q

Eyewitness testimony: what is being done?

A

Inform witness perpetrator might not be in lineup

Use “fillers” in lineup similar to suspect

Use sequential presentation (not simultaneous)

Improve interviewing techniques

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68
Q

Process model of emotion regulation

A
  1. Situation is present that involves an emotionally relevant elicitor
  2. Attention is directed toward the emotional stimulus
  3. Appraisal occurs in which we evaluate the emotional stimulus
  4. Response occurs in which an emotional reaction is generated

Feedback loop from response to situation such that appraisal can effectively occur at any of these points

69
Q

Situation Selection

A

Form of emotional regulation

Choose to approach or avoid/disengage from an emotionally relevant situation

To do this well we need practice in predicting our probable emotional reactions from certain events

70
Q

Situation modification

A

Form of emotional regulation

Modify a situation to reduce/ alter the emotional impact

Note- this refers to modifying the external environment

71
Q

Attentional deployment

A

Form of emotional regulation

Operates on principles we have learned through research on attention and selective attention

Distraction- diverting attention away from an emotional (negative) stimulus and toward something else

Rumination- considered a maladaptive emotion regulation strategy as it focuses attentional resources on repetitive and typically negative content (past oriented)

Worry- attention is directed to potentially negative future-oriented thoughts

Thought-suppression- redirect attention away from specific unwanted thoughts to something else (even temporarily)

72
Q

Cognitive Change

A

Form of emotional regulation

Here we are changing our appraisal of a situation to “distance ourselves” and lessen the emotional impact…. We can’t change the physical external situation as with situation modification in this case

Reappraisal- late attentional selection strategy (compared to distraction for example) we reappraise based on context and other factors to re-evaluate an event. It is associated with positive well-being and is adaptive, unlike thought suppression

Distancing- like dissociating, taking on a third-person perspective of an event to make it seem less emotionally relevant (more objective)

Humor- especially good-spirited humor

73
Q

Response Modulation

A

Form of emotional regulation

Modify our physiological response (heart rate through breathing, for example)

Expressive suppression- heart rate, monitoring facial expressions, generally considered maladaptive since we are not allowing ourselves to fully interact with that emotion

Drug and alcohol use - can be maladaptive

Exercise- can downregulate negative emotions and improves emotional control/lowers emotional distress

Sleep

74
Q

Age effects of emotional regulation

A

Emotion regulation ability increases with age

  • Accumulation of life experiences, both positive and negative
  • General goal to increase sense of well-being serves as a cognitive motivator for increases in emotion regulation

Emotion recognition ability increases with age

Emotional reactivity decreases (less physiological reactivity to negative events, for example)

75
Q

Decisions

A

The process of making choices between alternatives

76
Q

Reasoning

A

The process of drawing conclusions

77
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

Making and evaluating arguments from general information to specific information

Syllogism is valid if conclusion follows logically from its two premises

  • If two premises of a valid syllogism are true, the syllogism’s conclusion must be true
  • Do not confuse “validity” with “truth”
78
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

Making and evaluating arguments from specific information to broader generalizations

Inductive reasoning examines the likelihood of a conclusion being true

Can be used in the generation of new information

79
Q

Deductive Reasoning Approaches

A

Conclusion interpretation approaches
-Errors arise from general biases against making particular conclusions

Representation-explanation approaches
-Focus on how we represent the arguments
Ex: the difficulty

Surface approaches
-Reasoning relies on general heuristics focused on the surface properties of the quantifiers in the argument

80
Q

Dual-Process Framework Approach

A

Approach to deductive reasoning

Two systems of reasoning
-Unconscious, rapid, automatic, low effort, intuitive

-Conscious, slow, controlled, high effort, low capacity
Note: used by people with higher levels of reasoning or who are practiced in logic

81
Q

Types of inductive reasoning

A

Analogical reasoning

Category induction

Causal reasoning

Hypothesis testing

Counterfactual thinking (proving something to not be true rather than be true)

82
Q

Everyday reasoning

A

(as opposed to formal lab reasoning)

Some premises are implicit, and some are not supplied at all (vs. premises are supplied)

Problems are not self-contained (vs self-contained)

There are typically several possible answers that vary in quality (vs one correct answer)

There are rarely established procedures for solving the problem (vs established methods of inference)

It is often unclear whether the current “best” solution is good enough (vs unambiguous solutions)

The content of the problem has potentially personal relevance (vs academic interest)

Problems are often solved as a means of achieving other goals (vs for their own sake)

83
Q

Heuristics

A

“Rules of thumb” that are likely to provide the correct answer to a problem, but are not foolproof

84
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

events more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than those less easily remembered

85
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resembles properties normally associated with class B

  • Better to use base rate information instead if it is all that is available
  • However, people tend to use descriptive (e.g. personality characteristics, assumptions of groups) information if available and disregard base rate information
86
Q

Illusory Correlation

A

Type of heuristic

correlation appears to exist, but either does not exist or is much weaker than assumed

Stereotyping is an example

87
Q

Conjuction rule

A

type of heuristic

probability of two events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents

Ex: always more likely to be a bank teller than a feminist bank teller

88
Q

Law of large numbers

A

type of heuristic

the larger the number of individuals randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population

89
Q

The myside bias

A

type of heuristic

tendency for people to generate and evaluate evidence and test their hypotheses in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes

90
Q

confirmation bias

A

type of heuristic

tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and overlook information that argues against it

91
Q

Emotions and decision-making

A

People are poor predictors of how they will feel after a certain outcome

Ex: coin flip to win lose money. people predicted they would be happier than they actually were if they won (won $5) and sadder than they actually were if they lost (lost $3)

92
Q

Incidental emotions

A

Emotions that are not specifically related to decision-making

May be related to one’s general disposition or personality, some recent experience, or one’s general environment or surroundings

Can affect one’s overall decision-making processes

93
Q

Choice presentation

A

Effects how we make decisions

Ex: opt-in (actie step to be organ donor) vs opt out (they are an organ donor unless they request not to be)

Framing effect: decisions are influenced by how a decision is stated (ex: A vs C, B vs D - pie charts)

94
Q

Status quo bias

A

The tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision

95
Q

Risk-taking strategies

A

Risk-aversion strategy used when problem is stated in terms of gains

Risk-taking strategy when problem is stated in terms of losses

96
Q

Where framing effets are used

A

Organ donation (DMV)

Politics

Investment (success rates presented)

Birth control (effective rates provided)

Medical treatment

Marketing/packaging… 80% lean ground beef… not advertised as 20% fat

97
Q

Physiology of thinking

A

Sanfey and coworkers (2003)

More activation of right anterior insula (connected with emotional states), participants more likely to reject more offers

Emotion is important in decision-making

98
Q

Wason Four-Card Problem

A

Effect of using real-world items in a conditional-reasoning problem

Falsification principle: to test a rule, you must look for situations that falsify the rule

Tricky because people look for ways to confirm rather than falsify

When problem is stated in concrete everyday terms, correct responses greatly increase (ex: ages and alcohol)

99
Q

Problem

A

An obstacle between a present state and a goal

Not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle

Usually defined as difficult

100
Q

Gestalt approach to problem solving

A

Representing a problem in the mind

May have to restructure (changes the problem’s representation) ex: insight problems

Ex: Kohler’s circle problem, 9-dot problem, chain problem

101
Q

False constraint

A

Something that can limit us in problem-solving

assuming something is true about a problem that is not

Ex: chain problem, people assume you can only unlink the ends of the four pieces of chain

102
Q

Insight problems

A

Insight problems require changing the way you think about a problem (creative solutions)

Insight problems are solved suddenly

Noninsight problems (ex: algebra) solved gradually

103
Q

Functional fixedness

A

Obstacles to problem-solving

restricting use of an object to its familiar functions

ex: candle problem - box of tacts as a shelf instead of a container

104
Q

Mental set

A

Obstacle to problem-solving

A preconceived notion about how to approach a problem

Based on a person’s past experiences with the problem (or similar problems)

Water-jug problem: given mental set (same solution for 1-6) inhibited participants from using simpler solution for 7 and 8

105
Q

Intermediate states

A

A problem solving strategy

Means-end analysis: reduce differences between initial and goal states

Subgoals: create intermediate states closer to goal

Ex: tower of hanoi

106
Q

Think-aloud protocol

A

Problem solving strategy

  • Say aloud what one is thinking
  • Shift in how one perceives elements of a problem
107
Q

Using analogies

A

problem solving strategy
-Using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to new problem (russian marriage to mutilated checkboard problem – these are problem isomorphs)

-Move past surface features to match structural features of two different problems

Analogical encoding: the process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined

108
Q

Analogical paradox

A

It can be difficult to apply analogies for problem solving in the laboratory, but people routinely use analogies in real-world settings

109
Q

Observing problem solving in real world setting

A

Advantage: naturalistic setting, represents true application of problem solving

Disadvantages: time-consuming, cannot isolate and control variables

110
Q

Experts

A

solve problems in their field faster and with a higher success rate than beginners

possess more knowledge about their fields

focus on structural features whereas novices focus on surface features

spend more time analyzing problems

no better than novices when given problems outside of their field

less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems

111
Q

Creative-problem solving

A

New connections between existing ideas

Divergent thinking: open-ended; large number of potential “solutions” (vs convergent thinking)

112
Q

Learning

A

Any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice

113
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Type of learning

If the mechanism of learning is an involuntary response to a natural stimulus

Uses implicit memory so can be still be used with people who have amnesia for instance

114
Q

Thorndike’s law of effect

A

Type of learning

Rewarding experiences will be returned to (rat pushes button for food)

Subsequent attempts will take less time (rat will figure out quicker and quicker that the button delivers food)

115
Q

Vicarious learning

A

Type of learning

We can learn without direct instruction by modeling the behavior of others

116
Q

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

A

Type of learning

Uses operant conditioning techniques for behavior modification

  • Skills are broken down and simplified and taught to children using reinforcement
  • Useful in children with Autism and other developmental disorders as well as in animal training
  • A reward might be a treat, a sticker, or praise
  • Once the skill has been mastered independently, prompts are gradually removed
117
Q

Social Learning Theory

A

Bandura’s theory suggests that learning is a cognitive process that occurs in a social context

We can learn through direct instruction (but we don’t have to!)

We can learn vicariously as well… even without motor reproduction or without direct reinforcement
-Must be motivated and capable

118
Q

Cognitive Learning Theory

A

Individuals respond to stimuli and act on beliefs, feelings, attitudes, thoughts, and strive toward accomplishing goals

Tolman’s rats

119
Q

Latent learning

A

type of learning which is not apparent in the learner’s behavior at the time of learning, but which manifests later when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear

The work of Tolman on latent learning brought back an interest in mental processes. Previously there had been a growing interest in behaviorism

120
Q

Learned helplessness

A

Tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures

Learned helplessness is an explanation for depression

121
Q

Cooperative Learning

A

Typically small groups (~3 people)

Active learning style that encourages critical thinking

Each group member’s success depends on success of group- social facilitation effect

Working on a common task (especially with peers) promotes respect and collaboration

122
Q

Montessori style of learning

A

Encourages hands on exploration

Carefully prepared environments to meet children’s cognitive, social, and emotional needs at any moment

Children are in classrooms with children from a few age groups

123
Q

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

A

Carstensen, Isaacowitz, Charles (1999)- “Taking Time Seriously”

Life-span theory of motivation

It is because of time perspective that our goals shift as we age

  • Young adults (knowledge focused)- in line with negativity effect
  • Older adults (emotion focused)- in line with positivity effect

Other studies have shown time perspective (not age) is the motivating factor in SST

Ex: At risk youth who are not expecting to live past their youth may choose to spend time with close friends and family and do not make plans for the future

124
Q

SAVI model

A

Expands on Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

Strength and Vulnerability Integration (Charles & Luong)

as people age, they become better at emotion regulation by avoiding or modulating negative experiences (better emotional state prediction than seen in younger adults)

this occurs for two reasons:

  • more life experience than younger adults
  • more reason to regulate emotions and improve sense of well-being through keener awareness of limited future time perspective

at the same time, aging means that people are more vulnerable to physiological conditions that make it more challenging to regulate emotions
- if distress is too high, the effects of that experience will be worse for an older adult than for a younger adult

125
Q

Emotion empathy

A

Component of empathy

Feel/experience the same emotion as another person

Experiencing personal distress in response to the perception of another’s distress

Feeling compassion for another person (what we typically think of when we think of empathy)

126
Q

Cognitive Empathy/empathic accuracy

A

Having accurate knowledge of how another person feels

Involves recognition and understanding of another’s emotional state

127
Q

Empathy

A

Has cognitive and emotional aspects

Does not involve a total mirroring of another person’s experience
-We can feel empathy for another person experiencing pain without feeling the physical pain itself

128
Q

Social Exclusion

A

Eisenberger and coworkers (2015): does rejection physically hurt?

Physical-social pain overlap hypothesis
-Dorsal anterior cingulate cortex is activated by feelings of social exclusion (same part of the brain that activates when you see someone is in physical pain)

129
Q

Mirror neurons

A

Same parts of the brain fire when we do something as when we watch someone else do something (didn’t fire when monkeys watched someone use a tool to pick somethign up vs the person actually picking something up)

Iacoboni (2005): mirror neurons can be influenced by different intentions.
-Not just the action that is taking place- but why it is occurring (ex: film cup grasping – clean up, drinking)

130
Q

Theory of Mind

A

The why people do things is at the core of understanding the actions of others and is central to theory of mind as well

Allows us to attribute mental states to ourselves and others

Recognize that others have beliefs/intentions/emotions that differ from us

Used in many (most) social interactions

Influenced by the presence of psychological disorders such as autism, schizophrenia, brain damage, etc.

131
Q

Conceptualizing mindfulness

A

Mindfulness as a trait (on a continuum of mindful to not mindful, some people naturally gravitate toward mindful-based practices… or would naturally display mindfulness without intervention)

Scales like CAMS Cognitive and
Affective Mindfulness Scale and Mindfulness Questionnaire (MQ) help to quantify this

Mindfulness as a state/outcome (actively trying to achieve a state of being in the moment/aware)

As a practice- engaging in mindfulness-based meditation/training

132
Q

Two-component model of mindfulness

A

Self-regulation of attention on the immediate experience (external)

Then orient attention towards one’s present moment experiences (internal)

133
Q

Brain correlates of language

A

Prefrontal regions (Broca’s area)

Temporal regions (Wernicke’s area)

Parietal regions

Note: language as a cognitive concept is left hemisphere lateralized

134
Q

Broca’s Aphasia

A

Difficulties with grammatical speech (brain works but can’t produce speech)

Broca’s area: A region in the left central cortex that is important for processing language particularly grammar in speech, but comprehension is in tact.

135
Q

Wernicke’s Aphasia

A

Difficulties with meaningful speech but the fluency is relatively okay if nonsensical.

Wernicke’s area: A region in the left temporal lobe- semantic content of speech

136
Q

Language

A

A system for combining symbols in a systematic way (i.e., regularity)

Gives us an infinite number of meaningful statements (i.e., productivity)

The purpose is communicating with others

137
Q

Grammar

A

Rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences

138
Q

Syntax

A

Rules for combining words and phrases
e.g. The red car – El coche rojo

The level of representations and rules that specifies the ordering of words
Ex: “man bites dog” vs. “dog bites man”

Syntactic structure is the abstract representation that specifies how the words are related, not by meaning but rather the grammatical properties

Not simply the linear ordering of words

139
Q

Morphemes

A

The smallest units of meaning within a language
e.g. “-ness” to “happy”

Meets these criteria:

  1. Word or word part that conveys meaning.
  2. Can’t be divided into smaller parts without changing its meaning.
  3. Has a stable meaning in different usages.

Morphemes can be words (i.e., free morphemes)
E.g., cow

Morphemes can be prefixes and suffixes (i.e., bound morphemes)

  • E.g., cows (this word has 2 morphemes- cow and s)
  • Happily (bound suffix)
  • Unhealthy (bound prefix)
140
Q

Phonemes

A

The basic units of sound in a language

e.g. p in pull… do not necessarily correspond to letters in the alphabet, the number of phonemes vary by language

47 phonemes in English

141
Q

Pragmatics

A

The practical aspects of communicating with others
e.g. Emotional tone of voice

Also non-literal usage (idioms, metaphors, etc.)

Examines the use of language within specific contexts

Use top-down processing to help understand

142
Q

Reading: The Word Superiority Effect

A

The finding that letters are easier to recognize when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or are contained in a nonword

143
Q

Mental Lexicon

A

Lexical information may be stored as networks of representations at multiple levels. Here are examples of possible semantic and orthographic neighborhoods for tree.

144
Q

Lexical recognition and access

A

Properties of a word alone are not the only factors that affect word recognition

The context in which they occur also matters
Also impacts access to a word’s meaning
Ex: priming

145
Q

Word priming experiment

A

Faster responding to related words in a list vs unrelated words

Ex: doctor, nurse vs shoes, doctor

146
Q

Interpreting Sentences

A

Syntactic parsing
Impacts how a sentence is understood
Ex: “Enraged cow injures farmer with ax”

Deep structure
Surface structure

Syntax-first approach- Grammatical structure of sentence determines parsing

Interactive approach- Semantics (meaning) and syntax both influence processing as one reads a sentence
-used when we have more experience with the language

147
Q

Phoneme Speech errors

A

Exchange / York library – lork yibary

Anticipation / Reading list – leading list

Perseveration / beef noodle – beef needle

Addition / Blue bug – blue blug

Shift / Black boxes – back bloxes

Deletion / Same state – same sate

148
Q

Morpheme errors

A

Exchange / thinly sliced – slicely thinned

Anticipation / my car towed – my tow towed

Addition / Some weeks – somes weeks

149
Q

Types of inferences

A

Anaphoric: connecting objects/people(Calvin checked the mail)

Instrumental: tools or methods(Jen flex to NY)

Causal: events in one clause caused by events in previous sentence(Woman trips, breaks arm)

150
Q

Variability of the Acoustic Signal

A

Variability from different speakers

  • Speakers differ due to pitch, accent, gender, age speed in speaking, and pronunciation.
  • This acoustic signal must be transformed into familiar words.

Research on talker effect shows people perceive speech easily in spite of the variability problems due to perceptual constancy.

151
Q

English as an accent

A

English is the most widely spoken language worldwide.

2 billion people speak English, but only 400 million people speak it as a native language.

Yet, more people speak Mandarin as a native language.

This means that globally you are very likely to hear English spoken with some kind of “accent.”

152
Q

Categorical perception

A

Occurs when a wide range of acoustic cues results in the perception of a limited number of sound categories

Speech signals are continuous, yet we hear them categorically

Top-down processing, including knowledge a listener has about a language, affects perception of the incoming speech stimulus.

Segmentation is affected by context, meaning, and our knowledge of word structure.

153
Q

What is so special about human language

A

Features that make human language fundamentally different from animal communication and other systems:

  • Semanticity and arbitrariness of units
  • Displacement in time and space, ability to talk about it
  • Discreteness and productivity (unlimited number of ways to talk about it, using these symbols)

The ability to combine symbols makes human language different from the communication systems of all other species.

154
Q

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

A

More ability to talk about a concept= more thinking

Having more words for snow changes the precision with which people can discriminate snow quality.

155
Q

Cognitive universalism

A

Concepts (e.g., color) are universal and affect language development

Our ideas influence how we talk about them

It could also be that these processes are bidirectional
(Language influences thought and thought influences language)

156
Q

The McGurk Effect

A

Auditory-visual speech perception

  • Visual stimulus shows a speaker saying “fa-fa.”
  • Auditory stimulus has a speaker saying “ba-ba.”
  • Observer watching and listening hears “da-da”, which is the midpoint between “fa” and “ba.”

Observer with eyes closed will hear “ba.”

The link between vision and speech has a physiological basis.

Calvert et al. showed that the same brain areas are activated for lip reading and speech perception.

157
Q

Phonemic restoration effect

A

Experiment by Warren

Listeners heard a sentence that had a phoneme covered by a cough.

The task was to state where in the sentence the cough occurred.

Listeners could not correctly identify the position and they also did not notice that a phoneme was missing:- called the phonemic restoration effect.

158
Q

Experience-dependent plasticity

A

a change in the brain’s ability to respond to specific stimuli that occurs as a result of experience

infants are born with ability to speak any phoneme but eventually it’s limited to the language they are hearing

Ex: japanese vs english speaking babies ra vs la

159
Q

Embodied Cognition

A

Our cognition (memory, judgment, reasoning, categorization, perception) is affected/ shaped by our body

Strong connection to philosophy and the mind-body problem, dualism, our understanding of artificial intelligence

160
Q

Embodied cognition perception examples

A

backpack steeper hill, warm drink friendlier, right handed right better left handed left better

161
Q

Embodied cognition action examples

A

Action ex: faster to push lever than pull, acting out words memorization

162
Q

Embodied cognition language example

A

Words like “this” will lead people to reach for objects closer to them/ fixate on objects closer to them vs “that”… reach for/ fixate on objects farther away

163
Q

Positive Psychology

A

Life worth living

Goal: Understand “non-clinical” or “traditional” psychology from a scientific perspective

Term coined in 1954 by Maslow- promote mental health, rather than just treating mental illness

Minimize pathological thoughts, encourage happiness, quality of life, meaningful life

164
Q

Positive Psycholgoy research topics

A

Positive emotions/affect

Positive individual traits (strength-focused, virtues)

Positive institutions

165
Q

Seligman Initial Approach to Positive Psychology

A

Pleasant Life
-How people optimally experience and enjoy the positive emotions that are part of a normal life experience (activities, hobbies, relationships)

Good Life
-Engagement, flow experienced when people optimally immerse themselves in primary activities

Meaningful Life
-How people feel when they contribute to something bigger than themselves (social groups, movements, belief systems)

166
Q

Positive Psychology and Health

A

Experience of positive emotions/ positive affect serve as buffers and support immune system functioning

Lower rates of serious illnesses when positive affect is reported

Better mental health outcomes as well

Increase posttraumatic growth in cancer survivors

167
Q

Critiques of pos psychology

A

Cannot view the world through rose colored glasses
i.e., Being positive all the time is insufficient

There is a function and value to negative emotions, even the “worst” negative emotions

Also moments of emotional complexity where positive and negative emotions are co-experienced

Since Positive Psychology was created to provide a scientific understanding at the “normal” end of the spectrum, what is its utility when applied to someone meeting diagnostic criteria for a psychological disorder? Subclinical cases?

168
Q

Illusory contours

A

Object recognition

Appear real but have physical edges (invisible triangle)

169
Q

Structuralism

A

Object recognition

Distiniguished between sensations and perceptions
-number of sensations make up perception (dots and face)

Cog (Summer 2019) (2 decks)

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