Conservatism: core ideas and principles

Question 1

Pragmatism

Answer 1

an approach that evaluates theories or beliefs in terms of the success of their practical application.

Question 2

Conservatism: core
ideas and principles: Key terminology

Answer 2

Hierarchy
Authority
Change to conserve
Atomism

Question 3

Core ideas and principles of conservatism

Answer 3

• Pragmatism
• Tradition
• Human imperfection
• Organic society/state
• Paternalism
• Libertarianism (specifically neoliberalism)

Question 4

Oakeshott summarisation of conservatism

Answer 4

“to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the tried to the untried … [and] the actual to the possible.”

Question 5

Conservative preference for pragmatism link to human rationality

Answer 5

They contend that humans lack the intellectual ability and powers of reasoning to fully comprehend the complex realities of the world. As a result, conservatives tend to dismiss abstract ideas, theories and ideologies that claim to ‘explain’ or ‘improve’ human life and development.

Question 6

Conservatives Danger of ideas and theories and ideologies

Answer 6

Principles and ideas such as ‘human rights’, ‘a classless society’ and ‘equality’ are dangerous because they can promote a radical reordering of society (oft en through revolution) that leads to worse rather than better conditions.

Question 7

Conservatives appraoch to issues

Answer 7

act in a pragmatic way that emphasises caution, moderation and a sense of historical continuity

Question 8

Pragmatism and flexibility

Answer 8

• Pragmatism also implies a flexible approach to politics that considers what is in the best interests of the people, what is acceptable to the public and what will maintain social stability and cohesion.
• pragmatism represents a flexibility of mind and a search for practical solutions rather than the inflexibility imposed by ideologies
• pragmatic politicians face a dilemma that we often take for granted in party politics: they want to look flexible enough to command the ‘centre’ ground, but also appear principled and unwilling to give up completely on their values to secure office.

Question 9

Criticism of pragmatism

Answer 9

• pragmatism reveals a lack of political principle and encourages politicians to follow rather than lead public opinion
• In practice, political behaviour or action cannot be wholly separated from ideological or theoretical considerations.

Question 10

Religious criticism of pragmatism

Answer 10

Catholic thinkers and conservative religious thinkers more generally responded to the rise of pragmatism by arguing that its critique of universal truths, its critique of dogmatism was a kind of dogmatism in its own right, and bore the traces of a deep anti-Catholicism and secularism. For such thinkers, pragmatism opened the door to moral nihilism of

Question 11

Edmund Burke on pragmatism

Answer 11

• Pragmatism was an essential element in facilitating ‘natural’ or inevitable change within a state or society
• This type of change, he argued, should not be opposed because a state ‘without the means of some change is without the means of its conservation’ – for the state to keep going, it would have to adapt to some extent.
• Burke’s conservatism maintained that cautious pragmatism would bring about necessary change peacefully, through evolution, whereas the unbending pursuit of revolution or reaction would lead to conflict and chaos

Question 12

Change to Conserve

Answer 12

• The idea that society should adapt to changing circumstances by introducing moderate reforms, rather than reject change outright and risk rebellion or revolution.
• This in part reflects their non-ideological approach and their preference for pragmatism. Change is necessary in order that society may function.

Question 13

How is change to conserve reconciled with Conservatism

Answer 13

the core aim of conservatism is social order and harmony. To achieve this, conservatives favour those institutions and values that encourage a degree of cohesion between the various elements of society.

This line of argument is most closely associated with those figures who sought to formulate the philosophical underpinnings of conservatism.

Question 14

One Nation Conservatives and pragmatism

Answer 14

• Pragmatic ‘middle way’ approach to the economy that combines market competition with Government regulation
• Both encourages wealth creation through private enterprise and generates funding for state welfare programs

Question 15

Conservative administrations 1951 - 1964 on pragmatism

Answer 15

In opposition the Conservative Party opposed many aspects of the Labour Government’s domestic reform program
- However once in government they made no concerted effort to reverse them

Question 16

Tradition

Answer 16

• The transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation, or the fact of being passed on in this way.
• The concept of tradition recognises and values “the accumulated wisdom of past societies and a connection across the generations.”

Question 17

Conservative Religious justification of tradition

Answer 17

• Society’s institutions and practises were ‘God-given’ and so humans who attempt to alter these longstanding social arrarngments are challenging the will of God.
• divine justification severely weakened by impact of Enlightenment thinking (rationality, anti-clericalism) from c18th, and incorporation of man made innovations over time e.g. representative democracy

Question 18

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Answer 18

• Edmund Burke (1729-97) and G.K. Chesterton (1874-1936)
• Tradition constitutes the acumulated wisdom of the past
• The institutions, customs, and practises of the past are valable because they have proved fit for purpose and have survived
• They should be preserved for future generations to benefit from
• Tradition establishes continutity and social stability

Question 19

Burke statment on society

Answer 19

‘A partnership between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born’

Reflections on the Revolution in France 1790

Each generation has a solemn duty ot safeguard and pass on the accumulated wisdom of tradition to the next generation

Question 20

Conservatives on reform

Answer 20

• Reform or change can only be justified if it evolves naturally in a peaceful, gradual way in order to strengthen existing institutions, customs, and practises
• By seeking to destroy all traditional political and social institutions, the French in 1789 and Bolsheviks in 1917 were cutting themselves off from their past and paving ther way for regimes more tyrannical than the ones they toppled

Question 21

Conservatists tradition and identity

Answer 21

• tradition provides society and the individual with a strong sense of identity
• historically based sense of belonging
• tradition fosters social cohesion and securityy becuase it offers humans a reassuring collective sense of who they are
• radical, wide ranging changes will cut people off from the traditional basis of society and lead to instability

Question 22

Human imperfection

Answer 22

According to the conservative mindset, human nature is imperfect and unchangeable.
- Conservatives reject the view that is implicit within radical movements that human nature is somehow perfectible, because the conservative view is that humans are inevitably flawed and unchangeable.

Question 23

Conservatism human flaws Hobbes + traditionalists

Answer 23

Hobbes argued that it was a basic human instinct to seek power after power wanting to exploit one for the benefit of the self. For many traditionalists, this is rooted in the notion of the ‘original sin’ of Adam and Eve, of whom they believe us to all be descendants, as to the morally incapability of all human beings.

Question 24

Conservatism humans intellectually flawed

Answer 24

human beings are intellectually flawed unable to comprehend the boundless and bottomless pit of political life (Oakeshott.) Rather than rooting their ideals in grand ideas, such as Socialism or ‘rights of man’, they ground their decisions in pragmatism

Question 25

What does human imperfection mean for conservatists

Answer 25

• a tough stance on law and order iss needed to deter criminal behaviour
• foreign policy must be based on national security rather than liberal notions of international co-operation and harmony
• self-interest is more powerful and altriusm

Question 26

organic state or society

Answer 26

• if humans are dependent and security seeking (human imperfection) than they cannot exist seperately from society or social group (family, local community)
• therefore individuals must uphold society by accepting their duties and responsibilities (being a good parent, neighbour, child). Otherwise society would collapse leading to Anomie

Question 27

Anomie

Answer 27

is a social condition defined by an uprooting or breakdown of any moral values, standards or guidance for individuals to follow

Question 28

For Conservatives what is true freedom

Answer 28

The willing acceptance of the value of social obligations and ties

Question 29

Psychological aspect of human imperfection

Answer 29

• People crave safety, familiarity, and the security of knowing their designated place in society
• While social order provides humans with much needed security, predictability, and stability, liberty raises the unsettling prospect of choice, change, and uncertainty.
• Hobbes: social order has to come before liberty

Question 30

Moral aspect of human imperfection

Answer 30

• Humans are morally imperfect because they are naturally selfish and greedy
• Anti social or criminal behaviour is due to basic human nature and cannot be attributed to economic or social disadvantage
• A robust law and order system that imposes severe sanctions on such conduct is the only effective deterrent

Question 31

Organicism

Answer 31

• the philosophical position that states that the universe and its various parts (including human societies) ought to be considered alive and naturally ordered, much like a living organism.

Question 32

1st consideration about organicism

Answer 32

The internal elements of an organic society or state cannot be randomly reconfigured. Like a living creature, an organic society is maintained by a delicate balance of relationships between these elements. if this careful balance if disrupted, society will be undermined and possibly destroyed. For this reason, an organic society represents more than a collection of individual elements.

Question 33

2nd consideration about organicism

Answer 33

An organic society is based on natural needs and instincts such as affection, security, and concern, rather than an ideological blueprint devised by political theorists. Such as view of society - where its component parts have been molded by natural forces beyond human control - suggests its members should sustain this careful balance of interacting elements. In particular, long standing institutions have played a key role in preserving the health of society and should not be changed or removed.

Question 34

Hierarchy

Answer 34

• The conservative belief that society is naturally organised in fixed and unequal tiers, where one’s social position or status is not based on individual ability
• the means by which members of society are stratified or layered relative to others

Question 35

Why does hierarchy exist

Answer 35

• individuals vary in terms of their talent, intellect, skills, and work rate
• different classes and groups (like different limbs and organs) have to perform different roles
• We are born unequal with different attributes and characteristics

Question 36

Edmund Burke on hierarchy

Answer 36

we should “love the little platoon in society to which we belong.”

Question 37

Edmund Burke on hierarchy: advocating for the authority of ruling classes

Answer 37

• Burke argued that the ruling classes could govern the country in a disinterested manner, unlike the middle and working classes, who would serve their own interests.
• According to Burke, the ruling class possessed the accumulated wisdom of previous generations, with governance lessons passed down through the ages.
• Burke emphasized that “no generation should ever be so rash as to consider itself superior to its predecessors.”
• He asserted that the ruling class were socially superior in governing skills, reflecting the traditional Tory emphasis on divine providence and the natural order of things

Question 38

Hierarchy and organic society

Answer 38

• Conservatives believe that hierarchy fosters an organic society that evolves naturally to meet societal needs.
• Conservatives recognize that the basis of hierarchy can change over time, but there’s a tendency for society to reach equilibrium.
• Historically, hierarchy in British society shifted from feudalism to capitalism, while the concept of hierarchy persisted.
• The defining element of hierarchy shifted from circumstances of birth to success in acquiring wealth and property.

Question 39

Hierarchy and human society

Answer 39

Human society is essentially hierarchical (i.e., it always involves various interdependent inequalities, degrees, and classes) and that political structures that recognize this fact prove the most just, thriving, and generally beneficial

Question 40

Authority

Answer 40

for conservatives, the idea that people in higher positions in society are best able to make decisions on behalf on other people or society as a whole; authority comes naturally from above and rests on an accepted social obligation from below to obey

Question 41

How does authority

Answer 41

• Authority develops naturally and organically
• Authority operates in a top down manner
  Authority provides humans with security, direction, and comfort
• Authority promotes social cohesion by giving people a clear sense of how they fit in and what they are expected to do
• The leadership exercised by those in authority offers not only discipline but also an example to be admired, respected, and accepted
• Authority is limited by the natural responsibility that accompany the privileged position

Question 42

Max Weber authority

Answer 42

He argued that authority can be based upon charisma, tradition or rational-legal factors. Of these, the conservative state of mind is naturally inclined towards that of traditional authority.

Question 43

Conservative inclination towards traditional authority

Answer 43

Unlike charismatic authority (authority stemming from people’s devotion to a popular figure) and rational-legal authority (authority stemming from law), traditional authority reflects the customs of that particular society. Those institutions that have built upon their authority within society from one generation to the next – such as the army and the monarchy – are strongly defended by conservatives.

Question 44

G.K. Chesterton traditional authority

Answer 44

“tradition means giving votes to … our ancestors.”

Question 45

Niccolo Machiavelli in ‘The Prince’ (1532) on authority

Answer 45

• argued that the people need authority in order to prevent social collapse
• To achieve this, Machiavelli offered advice to the statesman: it is better for a statesman to be feared than loved

Question 46

Niccolo Machiavelli in ‘The Prince’ (1532) advice to the statesman (or prince)

Answer 46

• it is better for a statesman to be feared than loved
• A statesman must however avoid acting with cruelty as this may lead to hatred. This would place himself in a vulnerable position and thereby lose his position. A
• According to Machiavelli, the Prince must always seek to secure his own glory and position. As such, he cannot be bound by ordinary notions of morality.
• The inevitable conclusion here is that ‘the end justifies the means.’

Question 47

Thomas Hobbes on authority

Answer 47

• Hobbes argued in favour of a “Leviathan” whose authority would develop from the people themselves.
• Crucially, Hobbes claimed that a Leviathan would be prevented from becoming a tyrant because he – like everyone else – wished to preserve a state of affairs most favourable to himself.

Question 48

Alexandre Kojève (1902 - 1968) on traditional conservatism

Answer 48

distinguishes between two different forms of traditional authority:

• The Authority of the Father—represented by actual fathers as well as conceptual fathers such as priests and monarchs
• The Authority of the Master—represented by aristocrats and military commanders

Question 49

Robert Nisbet (1913 - 1996) on decline of authority

Answer 49

Acknowledges that the decline of traditional authority in the modern world is partly linked with the retreat of old institutions such as guild, order, parish, and family—institutions that formerly acted as intermediaries between the state and the individual.

Question 50

Hannah Arendt (1906 - 1975) on decline of authority

Answer 50

Claims that the modern world suffers an existential crisis with a “dramatic breakdown of all traditional authorities,” which are needed for the continuity of an established civilisation

Question 51

Paternalism

Answer 51

• the idea of government by peope who are best equiped to lead by virtue of their birth, inheritance, and upbringing
  -the policy or practice on the part of people in authority of restricting the freedom and responsibilities of those subordinate to or otherwise dependent on them in their supposed interest
• an approach to running the country in which members of the elite seek to govern in the best interests of the people.

Question 52

noblesse oblige

Answer 52

• privilege entails responsibility

Question 53

Edmund Burke on paternalism

Answer 53

• “A true natural aristocracy is not a separate interest in the state, or separable from it. It is an essential integrant part of any large body rightly constituted.”
• “these are the circumstances of men, that form what I should call a natural aristocracy, without which there is no nation.”

Question 54

Traditional conservatives on paternalism

Answer 54

• The natural aristocracy presided over society much like a a father did over his family
• The social elite provides leadership because of its inate or hereditary abilties
• The social elites’ skills and talents cannot be obtanied by hard work or self improvement
• Those at the top of society have a duty to care for the lower ranks
• In C18th and C19th, some conservative aristocrats became involved in charitable and philanthropic work

Question 55

Examples of Conservative aristocrats acting paternalistic in In C18th and C19th

Answer 55

• Lord Shaftesbury: prominent politician and philanthropist in C19th who played a key role in the passage of the Factory Acts
• Joseph Rowntree: Quaker and businessman from York who conducted extensive social research into poverty and inequality, which led to reforms in housing, healthcare, and education (modern welfare state)
• The Cecil Family and the Stanley Family

Question 56

David Cameron’s compassionate Conservatism link to paternalism: Social Responsibility

Answer 56

Cameron emphasized the importance of individuals and communities taking responsibility for their own well-being, echoing paternalistic ideals of guiding and supporting those in need. His emphasis on social responsibility implied a duty, not just of the state, but also of individuals and society at large, to care for one another.

Question 57

David Cameron’s compassionate Conservatism link to paternalism: Welfare Reform:

Answer 57

Cameron’s government implemented welfare reforms aimed at reducing dependency on the state and encouraging self-reliance. This approach resonates with paternalistic ideals of guiding individuals towards self-sufficiency and personal responsibility.

Question 58

David Cameron’s compassionate Conservatism link to paternalism: Big Society:

Answer 58

Cameron often spoke of building a “Big Society” where individuals and communities would take a more active role in addressing social issues and delivering public services. This concept emphasized the importance of civil society and volunteerism, aligning with paternalistic notions of community involvement and mutual support.

Question 59

David Cameron’s compassionate Conservatism link to paternalism: Education and Social Mobility:

Answer 59

Cameron’s government pursued education reforms focused on improving standards and increasing opportunities for disadvantaged students. By prioritizing education and social mobility, Cameron aimed to empower individuals to improve their circumstances, reflecting paternalistic beliefs in guiding individuals towards upward social mobility.

Question 60

Soft paternalism

Answer 60

• when those who are recipients give their consent
• paternalism is justified only if an action to be committed is involuntary

Question 61

Hard paternalism

Answer 61

• When paternalism is enforced, regardless of consent or opposition, in a more authoritarian manner
• an advocate of hard paternalism would permit restrictions of liberty to prevent suicide or grave personal harm even when a person in question is fully cognizant of his actions and their consequences

Question 62

Benjamin Disraeli (1804 - 1881) on Paternalism

Answer 62

• In his novels Coningsby (1844) and Sybil (1845) he warned that Britain was dividing into nations - the rich and the poor - increasing the likelihood of social revolution.
• Such a situation could only be averted by the privileged in society recognising their social obligation and duty to look after the less fortunate
• The well off would preserve their advantages but they would also alleviate the hardships faced by the lower orders and strengthen the social cohesion and stability of the nation
• blended self interest with principle
• Such an approach forms the basis of One-Nation Conservatism

Question 63

Philosopher Gerald Dworkin, 1973 on paternalism

Answer 63

“[Paternalism is] the interference with a person’s liberty of action justified by reasons referring exclusively to the welfare, good, happiness, needs, interests or values of the person being coerced.”

Question 64

Modern example of paternalism

Answer 64

The response of the government to the COVID-19 pandemic such imposing curfews, restricting movement, limiting social gatherings (Coronavirus Act 2020) to help reduce the spread of the virus, is an example of paternalism. These paternalistic decisions were made based on the belief that the restrictive measures would help protect society.

Question 65

Pure paternalism

Answer 65

• Preventing both the means and the ends to harm, (e.g. the legal prohibition of the consumption of drugs and narcotics)
• Paternalism where the person(s) having their liberty or autonomy taken away are those being protected

Question 66

Impure paternalism

Answer 66

• Preventing the means to harm, (e.g. making it illegal for doctors to prescribe certain drugs or narcotics to protect society)
• occurs when the class of people whose liberty or autonomy is violated by some measure is wider than the group of persons thereby protected.

Question 67

Paternalism in Government

Answer 67

• Monarchy: In the past, kings proclaimed themselves as the fathers of the kingdom and their subjects as their loyal sons
• Dictators and authoritarian figures use a cult of personality to portray themselves as the father of the nation

Question 68

Libertarianism

Answer 68

• Emphasises the rights of the individuals to liberty
• Advoates only miniminal state intervention in the lives of citizens
• The primary role of the state is to protect individua rights
• Rival conservative core value to paternalism
• In its modern form is known as neio-liberalism

Question 69

C18th Conservative thinking of libertarianism

Answer 69

• Adam Smith’s arguments for economic liberalism
• ## Burke advocated for free trade and a market economy (saying it was efficient and natural)

Question 70

Neo Liberalism

Answer 70

• Associated with Thatcher and Reagan
• Rejects state intervention and champins the free market

Question 71

History of neo liberalism

Answer 71

• Emerged among European liberal scholars during the 1930s as they attempted to revive and renew central ideas from classical liberalism as they saw these ideas diminish in popularity, overtaken by a desire to control markets, following the Great Depression
• Was part of a paradigm shift that followed the perceived failure of the post-war consensus and neo-Keynesian economics to address the stagflation of the 1970s
• The collapse of the USSR and the end of the Cold War also made possible the triumph of neoliberalism

Question 72

Neo liberal policies

Answer 72

• The free market is the only mechanism that can effectively supply goods and services on the basis of consumer demand
• Only the market, not government intervention, can ultimately determine the natural level of unemployment
• Inflation is the biggest threat to the market economy., By undermining financial conmfidence, inflation inhibits all forms of economic and business activity. Government cuts to control the money supply
• Supply side economics is the path to growth and general prosperity
• The market is self-correcting and will tend to ensure the most efficient allocation of scarce resources
• ## Those who supply goods and services must respond to the needs of the consumer if they want to survive. If they don’t, the government should let them fail.

Question 73

Neo libealism on state intervention

Answer 73

In contrast, state control of the economy undermines our entrepreneurial spirit. Running an economy along socialist lines creates a “client state” that serves vested interests.

Question 74

Coalition government 2010 neo liberal policies

Answer 74

• Claimed that cuts to Gov expenditure are beneficial in the long-term; based upon the assumption that individuals work harder when they retain more of their hard-earned income and wealth.
• A flexible labour market is essential in order that firms can best meet changes in consumer demand. To ensure this, the coalition government made it easier to hire and fire workers.

Question 75

Joseph Schumpeter “creative destruction” of capitalism

Answer 75

….

Question 76

Neo liberal objection to the State

Answer 76

• State welfare programes create a dependecy culture by depriving people of self respect and dignity, and undermining personal responsibilty and initative
• When genertions of people had become reliant on state benefits, it would erode parental financial responsibility for children, therby undermining the institution of the family, sapping the drive to create wealth and encouraging the growth of an underclass
• Policies to provide public services and redistribute income undermine property rights, as no legally acquired property can be transferred from one individual to another without consent
• The taxation revenue taken from income earners to fund welfare programmes respresents a form of legalised state robbery
• Extreme individualism: the individual and society do not owe each another anything

Question 77

Government of a family by the father is the true origin and model of all government.

Answer 77

In the beginning God gave authority to Adam, who had complete control over his descendants, even over life and death itself. From Adam this authority was inherited by Noah. This assumes that from Shem, Ham and Japheth the patriarchs inherited the absolute power which they exercised over their families and servants, and that it is from these patriarchs that all kings and governors (whether a single monarch or a governing assembly) derive their authority, which is therefore absolute, and founded on divine right.

Question 78

Robert

Patriarcha (1680), chapter 3 excerpts

By Robert Filmer

Answer 78

• “The father of a family governs by no other law than by his own will”
• “every father is bound by the law of nature to do his best for the preservation of his family”
• “A proof unanswerable for the superiority of princes above laws is this, that there were kings long before there were any laws.”