Core Political Ideology Flashcards
What is foundational equality?
- Rights that all humans have by virtue of being born which cannot be taken away (aka inalienable rights)
What is formal equality?
- All individuals have the same legal and political rights in society
Linked with the: - ‘first wave’ of feminism
- American Civil Rights in the 1960s
- promotion of LGBTQ+ rights
What is equality of opportunity?
- Everyone should have the same opportunity to succeed or fail
What is a social contract?
- The state/society is set up with agreement from the people to respect its laws which serve to protect them
What is the harm principle?
- Individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals
What are the key beliefs of liberals?
- Liberals believe in equality of opportunity not equality of outcome (key difference between them + socialists)
- Liberals aim to maximise liberty not equality
- Liberals aim to mitage the effects of discrimination
- Believe that society must give up individual liberty to achieve equality; the aim of equality must be dropped to achieve individual liberty
- Rawls: inequality can be justified if it benefits society as a whole; cannot be justified if it leads to the poorest beinh worse off than they were before
What do liberals believe about tolerance?
- Everyone has an equal moral worth + everyone should have the same rights as others
- All liberals celebrate diversity
- Believe that illiberal thoughts are allowed but not illiberal actions
- Liberals don’t tolerate the intolerable; harm principle
- Everyone can do anything they want if nobody is being harmed by their actions
- e.g FGM is a cultural practice that isn’t tolerated by liberals; they accept + agree with FGM reporting laws
What does liberism believe about individualism
- Believes in the primacy of the individual
- Individual freedom shouldn’t be stopped unless it causes harm
- The conformity of society stifles individualism
- Don’t like excessive state power
- Freedom of speech + assembly are key
- Clash between liberalism + religious fundamentalism
What do liberals believe about freedom of liberty?
- Ability + right to make decisions in our own interests
- People can join any political organisation of their our choice (if they don’t pose a threat)
- Children cannot have full rights; individual rights can only be given to rational + responsible adults
- Seeks emancipation of the individual from outdated conventions
- Best way to run the economy is through capitalism
What is postive and negative freedom?
Positive freedom; freedom to perform a certain activity without outside interference
Negative freedom; freedom from discrimination or harm
What do liberals believe about rationalism?
- Humans are rational + capable of reason; our behaviour is determined by rational interest rather than irrational emotions + prejudice
- Humans should be entrusted with as much freedom as possible
What do liberals believe are the consequences of rationalism?
- Humans are free to choose our own path guided by our free will
- Freedom of movement is encouraged
- Utilitarianism; most ethical choice is the one that pleases the most amount of people
- Human behaviour is not shaped by religious views or superstition
What is social justice?
- Idea that individuals are of equal value and should be treated impartially + fairly by society
What do liberals believe about equality?
- Equality of opportunity
- Social justice - redistribution of income + wealth
- Fair + even start to life (even if everyone isn’t equal at the end)
- Without assistance from the state; disadvantaged people wouldn’t experience liberty
Examples:
1. PPG
2. Council houses
3. Disability benefit
Explain liberal democracy
- Democracy which balances the will of the people (shown in elections) with limited government (state) + a respect for civil liberties
- Classical liberals viewed democracy as a ‘mob rule’ + ‘tyranny of majority’; as the majorities view could threaten the liberty of minorities aka elective dictatorship
- Want the state to be open, accountable + transparent
Explain why liberals view political participation as important
- Impetrative that people participate in politics; enhances representative democracy + holds government to account - needed for social contract
- Liberals support measures which enhance political participation
Explain why liberals support laissez-faire capitalism
- Laissez-faire capitalism = an economic system in which the government abstains from interfering in the allocation of resources
- Liberalism + capitalism are synonymous; capitalism is even supported by social liberals
- Capitalism is more economically efficient as it enables consumers to choose, allows for economic growth + for countries to trade peacefully
- Tensions exist between modern (more intervention) + classical liberlas (little to no intervention) on how much the state should intervene in the economy
How do liberals view the state?
- State is ‘neccessary’ to avoid disorder but ‘evil’ as it can remove individual liberty
- “Agents of the state” should limit their actions
- Liberals try to restrict state power + aim to strenthen human rights
- State should allow full religious expression
- Unlike anarchists liberals believe their is some role for the state; social contract
How do liberals view the relationship between the state and citizens?
Role of the State: state’s role should be constrained by the conventions of liberal democracy
Role of the Citizen: should be legislation + constitutional safeguards to protect human rights + liberty
Liberal Aims of the State: wish to disperse power away from the centre + towards local land (devolution)
Liberal Aims of Citizens: liberals are highly supportive of constitutionalism
Liberals’ position on the State: those in power should be held to account + subject to adequate levels of scrutiny
Liberal’s position on Citizens: liberals favour a codified constitution with a clear set of human rights (US Bill of Rights)
Application on the State: liberals strongly favour open government (foia 200)
Application on Citizens: individuals should always possess inalienable rights
What do liberals belive about human nature compared to conservatives and socialists ?
- Liberals disagree with socialists who believe that humans can become perfect; liberals think this is** idealistic + utopian **
- Modern liberals disagree with conservatives that humans can be altruistic + generous
Explain liberal beliefs about freedom of speech; key thinker Mill
- Mill’s harm principle; humans can do whatever they want as long as their actions don’t harm anyone
- Free speech should be limited by laws which prevent slander + discrimination
- Mill denied the right of the harm principle (to not experience harm) to the **“uncivillised, childish and backwards” **people who have very extremist or ‘wrong’ views
- Mill argues that there must be some limitation upon human behaviour + to protect the liberty of the other
What to classical and modern liberals disagree on when it comes to the state’s involvement in the economy
Both classical + modern liberal seek to promote liberty
* Classical liberals beliece that ‘trickle down’ econmics allows wealth to reach the poorest through marker activity
* Modern liberals believe that the state needs to use **progressive taxation + the ‘wefare state’ to help the poorest **
Progressive taxation = a tax system, in which those on a **higher income pay a higher % of their income tax **
What are the shared beliefs for all types of liberals?
- Belief in all key principles of liberals
- The state should ensure equality of opportunity
- The state can be involved in taking anti-discrimination measures (positive discrimination/affirmative action)
- The state should ensure liberty + freedom for all
Explain the views and beliefs of Classical Liberalism?
Classical Liberalism:
Ideolgical spectrum: Libertarian right
Key Theorists: Smith + James Mill
Dominant century: 19th century
Role of the State: Night-watchmen; should run a ‘balanced budget’ and adopt **‘good fiscal housekeeping’
Economy: ** Laissez-faire capitalism; in favour of privatisation and deregulation; “the freer the
market the freer the people”
Explain the views and beliefs of Modern Liberalism?
Modern Liberalism:
Ideolgical spectrum: Libertarian left
Key Theorists: Keynes, Beveridge, T.H. Green, J.S.Mill(later work)
Dominant century: Post war consensus
Role of the State: Intervention to promote liberty and equality of opportunity ‘from the cradle to the grave’; in recession there is no need to run a ‘balanced budget’ and a **budget deficit may be needed
Economy: Mixed economy; a modest
redistribution of wealth and income**
is allowed
Explain what natural justice is
Linked to classical liberalism
* Based on ‘natural law’
* People’s rights are not dependent on customs and laws
* The state should not intervene in the market
* Some overlap with New Right conservatism
Explain what social justice is
Linked to modern liberalism
* The state should take measures to promote a fairer distribution of chances in life
* Linked with the work of John Rawls
Explain what Smith argues about capitalism and the marketand what type of liberalist belief is it
- **Early classical liberalism **
- Smith argued that capitalism, via the **‘individual hand’ **of market forces had a limitless capacity to enrich society and the individuals within it
- The wealth acquired by individuals would trickle down to the rest of the population
- This was only so long as the state took a laissez-faire approach to the workings of a market-economy
- Smith also advocated the end of tariffs and duties on the importation of goods to protect domestic producers. He argued for the spread of** free trade between nation-states**
Explain one of the key beliefs of modern liberals that wasn’t a key idea among classical liberals
- Increased emphasis on** tolernance of minorities**. This argument has become known as social liberalism
- Key thinkers, such as Betty Friedan, argue that many** individuals are held back on account of their gender, ethnicity or physical disabilities**.
Explain what Mill believed about debelopmental individualism and why it was important and what type of liberalist belief is it
* Later classical liberalism *
* Mill hoped that developmental individualism would advance individual potential
* This would promote a** liberal consensus **in society, safeguarding tolerance, rationality and individualism.
* A vote would be withheld from the unschooled and illiterate, whereas those with a university degree would receive more than one vote.
Explain examples of modern liberalism in government policy
- From the 1960s onwards, modern liberalism became associated with social liberalism
- Social liberals in the UK have given backing to legislation like the Race Relations Act (1976) and the Sex Discrimination Act (1975)
Explain what Friedan argued about how modern liberalism allows for state interventions
- Friedan argued that interventionist agencies like the EEOC were consistent with liberal values as the criminalisation of sexual discrimination merely protected the rights of certain sections of society, thereby consistent with **Mill’s harm principle **
Explain what later classical liberal belived about individuals autonomy within advancing societies and what this meant to allow for equality of opportunity
* Later classical liberalism *
* Argued that advanced societies showed that **individuals were not autonomous but were actually subject to social and economic factors that were a creation of an industrialised society
* So self-realisation was not possible for some individuals, so social justice would be required if individuals were to fulfil their potential**
Explain what Wolstonecraft argued about the treatment of women in the 18th century and what type of liberal she was
- Early classical liberalism
- Mary Wollstonecraft argued that the treatment of women in the 18th century was an affront to reason and an affront to the individual liberty of half the adult population
- Wollstonecraft contested the idea that women were emotional creatures, suited only to a life of domesticity
- While we see such attitudes as liberal, they were considered radical and revolutionary in the 18th century.
Explain what Mill meant by developmental liberalismand what type of liberal belief this was
* Later classical liberalism
*Mill’s interpretation of liberalism has often been referred to as developmental liberalism
* This was the idea that an individual was a progressive being and should not be limited to liberty in the now but should be concerned with what he or she could become
Explain how modern liberals view the role of the state within society
Whereas classical liberals upheld the view that a minimal state was necessary to safe-guard individualism
Modern liberals argued that only a larger state could repel the new, socio-economic threats to freedom and individualism
This was seen with the Liberal government from 1906-1910 introducing many policies that guaranteed a** basic standard of living**
Explain Bentham’s utilitarian’ state
- **Bentham’s utilitarian state **is a system which aims to maximise overall happiness and minimise suffering through democracy as people would be inclined not to prioritise their own interests but that of the whole of society thus allowing for social progress
- Bentham introduced the idea that governments should act in a way which maximises the overall happiness of the majority by focusing on the **general welfare of the country **
- Once widespread education had been achieved, liberal values could be furthered, refining Bentham’s utilitarian state as people would vote in the interests of all, not just in their own selfish interests
Explain Locke’s key beliefs about the state and human nature which were considered revolutionary in the 18th century
** Early classical liberalism*
* Locke’s idea that there should be government of consent **was a radical idea at the time.
* Believe that **humans were inherently rational or that society should be geared towards maximising individual freedom **were widely held in the 18th century
* Lockean ideas in the 17th and 18th centuries needed vigorous argument in defence and sometimes revolutionary upheaval
Explain Keynes’s beliefs about capitalism and what type of liberalism it is
- Modern liberalism
- Keynes** rejected the argument that the market is a self-correcting mechanism** naturally inclined towards reaching a state of equilibrium
- Believed that laissez-faire capitalism with its cycles of recession and unemployment did nothing to advance individualism
- Keynes argued that the state must steer the economy and manage demand so that full employment could be secured, without which individual liberty could not be achieved
- Believed the government should implement a system of automatic stabilisers to smooth out the trade cycle; state could** ‘fine-tune’ the economy by manipulating the level of demand** within the economy
- An** increase in government spending and a reduction in taxation would bolster demand**, whereas a
cut in government spending and an increase in taxation would lower consumer demand; so gov could deal with both inflation + unemployment - Keynes’ economic strategy influenced successive world governments in the 20th century, from Roosevelt’s New Deal in the 1930s to successive British governments from 1945-1979 + Brown’s response to the financial crisis of 2008
- It matched both the Tory notion
of paternalism and the social democratic strand of socialism.
Explain Rawls key beliefs about the most disadvantaged and what type of liberalism they are
- Rawls argued that society should look to ameliorate the condition of the least fortunate in society
- Rawls didn’t argue for equality of outcome and accepted that there would be inequality depending on an individual’s efforts
- This is what distinguished modern liberalism from socialism and a centrally planned economy
Explain what modern liberals believe about how to implement the social contract
- Modern liberalism has a passion for ongoing constitutional change
- Hobhouse argued that** ‘if the state is to be enlarged, it is to be improved’**
- To secure the principle of government by consent, liberals have argued for a codified constitution, devolution of power and electoral reform
Explain early classical liberal beliefs about negative liberty
- Early classical liberalism
- Negative liberty saw freedom as an absence of restraint
- Individuals should therefore assume that they were naturally free until something or someone put a brake on their actions
- Man should be allowed to** exercise a high degree of personal freedom as individuals were autonomous, atomistic and self-reliant**
Explain Smiles beliefs about individualism and what type of liberal beliefs they are
* Later classical liberalism
* Smiles feared that individualism was being threatened by the advent of socialism
* Believed that self-reliance was achievable for most individuals, including the working-classes
* Industrialisation made this more difficult, the challenge would merely make more fully developed individuals. A socialist state would **remove this challenge and leave stunted human beings with their liberty wasted*
Explain early classical liberal beliefs about the minimal state
- Thomas Jefferson summed up[ the minimal state when he said, ‘The government that is best is that which governs least … when government grows, our liberty withers.
- The belief in a minimal state also strengthened classical liberalism’s faith in the dispersal of political power; a **state with checks and balances **would be one where bold state action would be difficult and therefore infrequent
Explain how Bentham argued for a utilitarian society in a modern world, how the state would be involved in the this and what type of liberal belief it is
* Later classical liberalism **
* Bentham acknowledged that in an industrialised economy there would be more clashes between individuals than early classical liberals had envisaged
* The liberal state would need to create legislation based on the greatest happiness of the greatest number of the population**
* This provided liberalism with one of its earliest** justifications for democracy**
Explain what Spencer argues about a mnimal state and what type of liberal belief it is
* Early classical liberalism *
* Spencer sought to apply Darwin’s theory of natural selection to society
* A minimal state and ‘survival of the fittest’ would lead to a society where those unable to enjoy the benefits of individualism would be **eliminated, creating a society where individual freedom could thrive
* Known as ‘social Darwinism’**
Explain what Rawls believed about how the enlarged state and what type of liberal belief it is
* Modern classical liberalism*
* Rawls set out to show that while an enlarged state would require individuals sacrificing some of their money in the form of progressive taxation
* Rawls argued that the enabling state was perfectly consistent with the liberal state of government by consent
* Rawls proposed the** ‘original position’ where individuals make decisions under a ‘veil of ignorance’ where individuals are unaware of their social position, gender, talents **and other characteristics; allows for **fair and impartial decision-making
* Rawls argued for the Liberal Position** in which everyone should have equal basic liberties
* Difference Principal in which social and economic inequalities should only exist if they benefit the most disadvantaged members of society
* Rawls proposed that an enabling state requiring progressive taxation and wealth redistribution create a more equitable society.
Explain what Beveridge argued about the five major evils, what type of liberal belief and how did Attle try to limit them
- **Modern liberalism **
- Beveridge was a liberal social scientist and civil servant who advanced modern liberal ideas; provided the** foundation for Britain’s post-war welfare state**
- Argued that the five major evils that threatened society, Beveridge argued that they could only be overcome with a major extension of state provision
1. Want = inadequacy of income + lack of basic necessities among the population
2. Disease = **absence of adequate healthcare + medical services **for many
3. Ignorance = lack of educational opportunities + inadequate access to high-quality education for many
4. Squalor = poor living conditions + a lack of affordable housing
5. Idleness = unemployment or underemployment - Attlee aimed to limit these evils through the NHS = providing universal free healthcare for all at the point of use, **Social Security System **= providing financial assistance to many during unemployment, disability, retirement etc, **Education Reforms **= creating more schools, policies which improved access to education + made it free to all children, Housing Programs = providing adequate + affordable housing to many, over a million were built
