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MODR 1760 > Critical Thinking & Arguments > Flashcards

Critical Thinking & Arguments Flashcards

1
Q

What is an argument?

A

A group of premises that support a position or conclusion

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2
Q

What is a claim?

A

statements that are either true or false, an assertion that something is or is not true

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3
Q

What is a conclusion?

A

The statement that the premises are supposed to support in an argument

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4
Q

What is critical thinking?

A

The systematic evaluation of the formulation of beliefs or statements by rational standards

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5
Q

What is an explanation?

A

A statement or statements intended to explain why or how something is the case

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6
Q

What are indicator words?

A

Words that are frequently found in arguments and signal that a premise or conclusion is present

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7
Q

What is an inference?

A

The process of reasoning from a premise to a conclusion based on those premises

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8
Q

What is logic?

A

The study of good reasoning, or inference, and the rules that govern it

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9
Q

What is a premise?

A

In an argument, the statement or reason given in support of the conclusion

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10
Q

What are bad arguments known as?

A

fallacies

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11
Q

Do good arguments have to be perfect?

A

no

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12
Q

What matters when determining if an argument is good?

A

the structure not the content

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13
Q

What is the difference between a dispute and an argument?

A

dispute is between significant others, not always rational, can be just contradictions, associated with emotions

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14
Q

What can make opinions more trustworthy?

A

if they hold up to scrutiny from other people

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15
Q

What are two classes of beliefs?

A

objective and subjective

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16
Q

Why is critical thinking considered systematic?

A

because it involves distinct procedures and methods

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17
Q

Why does critical thinking involve evaluation and formation?

A

because it is used to assess existing beliefs and to arrive at new ones,

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18
Q

Why is crititcal thinking according to rational standards?

A

rational standards because it involves beliefs that are judged by how well they are supported by reasons

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19
Q

What are cognitive biases?

A

errors in reasoning

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20
Q

Are all errors in reasoning cognitive biases?

A

no

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21
Q

What is deductive reasoning?

A

logic where you progress from general ideas to specific conclusions

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22
Q

What is inductive reasoning?

A

logic where you progress from specifics to a general idea

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23
Q

Are rhetorical sentences claims?

A

no but they can eaasily be rewritten as a claim

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24
Q

What are implications?

A

premises that imply a conclusion

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25
Q

Are explanations arguments?

A

no

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26
Q

Are descriptive passages arguments?

A

no

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27
Q

How can you recognize an argument?

A

lcoate the premise and conclusion, look for indicator words

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28
Q

Whaat are some premise indicator words?

A

because, as indicated by, since, given that, in view of the fact

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29
Q

What are some conclusion indicator words?

A

therefore, hence, consequently, which means that, as a result

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30
Q

Are indicator words required for an argument?

A

no

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31
Q

What are some obstacles to critical thinking?

A

psychological obstacles, bias, conformation bias, overconfidence, halo effect, philosophical obstacles, conspiracy theory

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32
Q

What is self interested thinking?

A

accpeting a claim because it coincides with our intersts or advances them

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33
Q

What are some groups that exert pressure?

A

friends, classmates, social media, cultural, religious

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34
Q

What is peer pressure?

A

group pressure to accept or reject a claim based solely on what your peers think

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35
Q

What is appeal to popularity?

A

fallacy of arguing that a claim must be true merely because a substantial amount of people believe it

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36
Q

What is appeal to common practices?

A

wanting to be in line with other people

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37
Q

What does mob appeal use?

A

patriotism, innuendo, sarcasm, theatrical performance, appeals to emotion

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38
Q

What is availability error?

A

we rely on evidence that is memorable, striking, or psychologically available

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39
Q

What are types of personal bias?

A

overconfidence effect, confirmation bias, halo effect

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40
Q

What are types of illegitimate bias?

A

vested interst, conflict of interest, slanting by omission, slanting by distortion

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41
Q

What is a world view?

A

philosophy of life, set of fundamental ideas

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42
Q

What is not a requirement of critical thinkers?

A

faith

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43
Q

What does self intersted thinking leave you vulnerable to?

A

propoganda and manipulation

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44
Q

What is the best advice for anyone trying to uncover or dissect arguments?

A

find the conclusion first

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45
Q

Which term refers to drawing conclusions about people without sufficient reasons?

A

stereotyping

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46
Q

What is implied in subjective relativism?

A

truth is different for everyone

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47
Q

What is “Adam stole the money because he needed it to buy food”? (argument/explanation, etc)

A

explanation

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48
Q

What is fake news?

A

False information that masquerades as news, with the intent to deceive

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49
Q

What is sometimes required to distinguish an argument from an explanation?

A

knowledge of context

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50
Q

When you are unable to assign any substantial weight at all to the reasons for or against a statement, what should you do?

A

suspend judgement

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51
Q

What are some traits of inductive arguments?

A

premises are meant to provide probable support for the conclusion, not considered truth preserving (typically empirical, science probability)

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52
Q

What are some traits of deductive arguments?

A

premises are meant to provide conclusive support for the conclusion, considered truth preserving (math, logic, and conceptual arguments)

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53
Q

What is a sound argument?

A

deductively valid argument that also has true premises

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54
Q

What is a cogent argument?

A

inductively valid argument that if the premises are true than the conclusion is true

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55
Q

Can deductively valid arguments have false premises and a true conclusion? Are deductively valid arguments sound?

A

yes

not all

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56
Q

What is the four step process for determining if an argument is deductive or inductive?

A
  1. find the conclusion then the premises
  2. is it the case that if the premises are true than the conclusion must be true?
  3. is it the case that if the premises are true its conclusion is probably true?
  4. is it the case that it tried to offer conclusive or probable support but failed?
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57
Q

If your professeur said that all students in my section fail what is the unstated conclusion?

A

that you will fail

58
Q

If someone argues that all humans are mortal, therefore plato is mortal what is the unstated premise?

A

plato is human

59
Q

What are two reasons premises might be unstated?

A

believed to be common knowledge, controversial

60
Q

What is the three step process for investigating unstated premises?

A
  1. search for a credible premise that would make the argument valid
  2. search for a credible premise that would make the argument as strong as possible
  3. now you can evaluate

(some arguments are bad, not missing premises)

61
Q

What is the principle of charity?

A

we should interpret people in a way that makes sense, give argument the best chance

62
Q

What is the straw man’s fallacy?

A

distorting/weakening or simplifying someones position to win the argument

63
Q

When evaluating validity/cogent what are we looking at?

A

the form

64
Q

What are some valid forms of conditional arguments?

A

affirming the antecedent, denying the consequent, hypothetical syllogism, disjunctive syllogism

65
Q

What is the structure of affirming the antecedent?

A

P1: if p then q
P2: p is true
C: therefore q

66
Q

What is another name for affirming the antecedent?

A

modus ponens

67
Q

What is the structure of denying the consequent?

A

P1: if p then q
P2: q is false
C: therefore not p

68
Q

What is another name for denying the consequent?

A

modus tollens

69
Q

What is the structure of hypothetical syllogism?

A

P1: if p, then q
P2: if q, then r
C: therefore if p, then r

70
Q

What are some invalid conditional arguments forms?

A

denying the antecedent, affirming the consequent

71
Q

What is the structure for denying the antecedent? Why is it invalid?

A

P1: if p then q
P2: p is false
C: therefore not q

both premises can be true and the conclusion could still be false

72
Q

What is the structure for affirming the consequent? Why is it invalid?

A

P1: if p then q
P2: q is true
C: therefore p is true

premises can be true and the conclusion could still be false

73
Q

What is the structure of disjunctive syllogism?

A

P1: either p, or q
P2: p is false
C: therefore q

74
Q

What is the letter symbol for premises, subpremises, main conclusions, and sub conclusions?

A

P, SP, MC, SC

75
Q

What is the problem when arguments fail?

A

Premises are false, or the reasoning is faulty, or both

76
Q

What are the two broad categories of fallacies?

A

Unacceptable premises and irrelevant premises

77
Q

Why do we study fallacies?

A

We need to be able to detect them (logical self defense)

78
Q

What is positive relevance?

A

When premise works to prove conclusion

79
Q

What is negative relevance?

A

When premise works to disprove the conclusion

80
Q

When are premises irrelevant?

A

When they don’t prove or disprove the conclusion

81
Q

What is the genetic fallacy?

A

Arguing that a claim is true/false based solely on its origin

82
Q

Who can commit this fallacy?

A

the creator and the evaluator of the argument

83
Q

What is the appeal to the person fallacy?

A

Rejecting claim by criticizing the person who makes it rather than the claim itself

84
Q

What is another name for appela to person fallacy? What is it a subtype of?

A

ad hominem, genetic fallacy

85
Q

What are the two most common types of ad hominem attacks?

A

abusive and circumstantial

86
Q

What do abusive ad hominem include? Example?

A

personal attack

I don’t believe that, he is an idiot

87
Q

What do circumstantial ad hominems include? Example?

A

reject based on person’s circumstances

The ceo of a company said there was no issue with there product, he must be lying, hes the ceo

88
Q

What is tu quoque?

A

version of ad hominem, involves hypocrisy

X says this but doenst do this so it must be false

89
Q

What is poisoning the well?

A

don’t beleive a word X says (jus tbecause smthg is false doens’t mean everything they say is)

90
Q

What is fallacy of composition?

A

arguing that what is true of the parts must be true of the whole

91
Q

When is the fallacy of composition often used?

A

statistical arguments

92
Q

What is the fallacy of division?

A

arguing that what is true of the whole must be true of the parts

93
Q

What is the fallacy of equivocation?

A

using a word in two different senses in an argument

94
Q

What is ambiguity?

A

when a term, phrase, or sentence has two or more distinct meanings and it is not clear which is meant in the given context

95
Q

What are the two types of ambiguity?

A

syntatic and semantic

96
Q

What is syntactic ambiguity?

A

When language is grammatically confusing, missing punctuation can cause this

97
Q

What is semantic ambiguity?

A

when words w/more than 1 meaning are used without care, can be used in puns

98
Q

What is the appeal to popularity fallacy?

A

arguing that a claim must be true because a substantial number of people believe it

99
Q

What is the difference between appealto populairty and appeal to authrotiy?

A

popularity refers to general publics beleifs, authority refers to an experts beleifs

100
Q

What is appeal to common practice? What is it a sub-fallacy of?

A

When argument is not about what people believe but rather what many people do, appeal to popularity

101
Q

What is appeal to tradition?

A

arguing that a claim must be true because its part of a tradition or has always been believed

102
Q

What is appeal to ignorance?

A

thinking that a claim is true because it hasnt been proven false

103
Q

What is burden of proof?

A

Weight of evidence or argument required by one side in a debate or disagreement, needs to be placed on right side

104
Q

Who does the burden of prrof usually rest on?

A

person making a posititve claim (proponent of an argument0

105
Q

What is appeal to emotion?

A

Use of emotions in place of relevant reasons as premises in an argument

106
Q

What is rhetoric? Example?

A

Rhetoric is the use of non-argumentative, emotive words and phrases to persuade or influence an audience, appeal to emotion

107
Q

What is appeal to pity?

A

apeal to emotion using pity to try to win arguemtne, aka ad misericordiam

108
Q

What is appeal to fear?

A

using fear/fear of consequences to sway person

109
Q

What are euphemisms?

A

Opposite to emotional charged languages

Hide or disguise warranted emotional force by replacing a term with negative connotations with a term with positive/no connotations

110
Q

What is red herring?

A

Deliberately raising an irrelavant issue during an argument

111
Q

What is straw man?

A

Distorting, weakening, or oversimplifying someone’s position so it can be more easily attacked or refuted

112
Q

What are examples of fallacies of irrelevance?

A

genetic, ad hominem, composition, division, equivocation, appeal to popularity, appeal to emotion, appeal to ignorance, appeal to tradition, red herring, straw man

113
Q

What is begging the question?

A

Attempting to establish the conclusion of an argument by using that conclusion as a premise (aka arguing in a circle)

114
Q

What is false dilemma?

A

2 options: Asserting that there are only two alternatives to consider when there are actually more than two

Asserting that there are two distinct alternatives that are not mutually exclusive

115
Q

What is slippery slope?

A

Arguing without good reasons that taking a particular step will inevitably lead to further undesirable steps

116
Q

What is hasty generalization?

A

Drawing a conclusion about a target group on the basis of a sample that is too small

117
Q

What is categorical logic?

A

Form of deductive reasoning whose focus is categorical statements, which make assertions about categories/classes/or things

118
Q

What is the subject in categorical logic?

A

thing you are talking about (usually 1st)

119
Q

What is the predicate in categorical logic?

A

the thing that you are saying about the subject in a conclusion (usually 2nd)

120
Q

In the example, all cows are vegetarians, what is the subject/predicate?

A

cows=subject

vegetarians=predicate

121
Q

Why is this type of logic still around after 1000s of years?

A

part of everyday reasoning, understanding its rules leads to clearer thinking

122
Q

What are the names of the 4 standard forms of categorical statements?

A

A-statement/universal affirmative, E-statement/universal negative, I-statement/particular affirmative, O-statement/particular negative

123
Q

What is the standard form for an A-statement?

A

all S are P

124
Q

What is the standard form for an E-statement?

A

no S are P

125
Q

What is the standard form for an I-statement?

A

some S are P

126
Q

What is the standard form for an O-statement?

A

some S are not P

127
Q

What types of words can be subject/predicates?

A

nouns, pronouns, noun phrases

128
Q

What are the four parts of categorical statements?

A

subject, predicate, copula, quantifier

129
Q

What is the copula?

A

Linking verb that joins subject and predicate

130
Q

What is the quantifier?

A

All, some, no etc

131
Q

What are the steps for translating categorical statements to standard form?

A

identify the terms, reword terms so they name classes (if needed), Put the subject and predicate terms in standard order

132
Q

Translate all dogs are loyal to standard form?

A

all dogs are loyal animals

133
Q

Translate none of my friends can play the saxophone to stadnard form?

A

no friends of mine are people who can play the saxophone

134
Q

Translate Tara plays the violin to standard form?

A

all people identical to Tara are people who play the violin

135
Q

Translate hamburgers are the only real junk food to standard form?

A

all real junk foods are hamburgers

136
Q

Where do the words “only” and “only if” go in an A-statement?

A

before the predicate

137
Q

What do you use to diagram categorical statements?

A

venn diagram

138
Q

What does venn diagram for A-statement look like?

A

The part of diagram where the S circle does not overlap the P circle is empty, we shade it to show its empty

139
Q

What does venn diagram for E-statement look like?

A

part where the circles overlap is shaded (empty)

140
Q

What does venn diagram for I-statement look like?

A

put X in overlap between two circles, shows that something is there

141
Q

What does venn diagram for O-statement look like?

A

X is in S but not P, shows that at least 1 S is not a P

MODR 1760 (1 decks)

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