designing observations

Question 1

what to observe

Answer 1

• Observations can be divided into two categories, differing in how focused they are on specific behaviours.
• Unstructured Observations are relatively non-focused, generating descriptions (qualitative data) of the range of behaviours going on.
• However, if a researcher wishes to try and generate numerical (quantitative) data, then this will require a Structured Observation where the observation of behaviour is guided by the use of specific behavioural categories, defined prior to the observation through the development of what is known as a ‘coding scheme’.
• These coding schemes allow the observer to focus on specific behavioural events and the frequency with which they occur.

Question 2

coding schemes

Answer 2

in order to record systematically, behaviours to be observed must be operationally defined and measurable; that is, the observers must be able to recognise the behaviours from the definitions and it must be possible for them to accurately record the behaviours exhibited.

Question 3

guidelines for developing coding scheme

Answer 3

• Focus: Concentrate on behaviours that are relevant to your hypothesis.
• Utility: Consider whether, having recorded the information, it will be possible to use it. If not, either change your scheme if the item is essential or leave it out if not.
• Operational definition: Ensure that it is possible from your definition to decide which behaviours do, and do not, fall into the category.
• Objectivity: Your definition should not require the observer to make inferences about the participant, the behaviour should be explicit; code actions rather than states.
• Context independence: Where possible, behavioural codes should be consistent over different contexts.
• Exhaustive: Codes should cover all possible behaviours, this may necessitate a ‘not recorded’ or ‘waste basket’ category.
• Mutually exclusive: At any time the recording of one code should preclude the need to record another simultaneously. This may however be impractical or inappropriate in some situations.

Question 4

types of observations

Answer 4

• naturalistic observation
• controlled observation

Question 5

advantage of naturalistic observation

Answer 5

• Participants in their normal environment – realistic.
• Less likely to be aware of the observation.
• Useful for obtaining observations in situations where intervention would be unethical.

Question 6

disadvantage of naturalistic observation

Answer 6

• Extraneous variables rarely controlled.
• Difficult to ensure the reliability as recording equipment may be obvious, as would overt note-taking by observers.

Question 7

study example of a naturalistic observation

Answer 7

Piliavin

Question 8

advantage of a controlled observation

Answer 8

• Data recording is likely to be reliable.
• Extraneous variables are controlled – high validity.
• Compared to experiments, a greater range of behaviours may be explored.

Question 9

disadvantages of a controlled observation

Answer 9

• Unfamiliar environment causes unrealistic behaviour.
• Artificial situation increases awareness and demand characteristics.
• Cannot represent the reality of a setting.

Question 10

study example of a controlled observation

Answer 10

bandura

Question 11

how to observe

Answer 11

• participant observation
• non-participant observation
• covert
• overt

Question 12

advantages of participant observations

Answer 12

• Being involved in the sample can allow insight.
• If participants are unaware of the observer’s dual role, they behave more normally which increases the validity and reveals more than they would otherwise.

Question 13

disadvantages of participant observations

Answer 13

• Participants will be aware that they are being observed, so their responses may not reflect reliability.
• Being involved can make the researcher subjective.
• Hiding the observer raises practical and ethical issues.

Question 14

example study of participant observations

Answer 14

Piliavin
levine

Question 15

advantage of non-participant observation

Answer 15

• If the study is covert, data recording can use equipment to make accurate and detailed records.
• Observers can remain objective about the situation as they are not involved.

Question 16

disadvantage of non-participant observations

Answer 16

• If participants are unaware, this raises ethical issues about informed consent and other ethics.
• If the participants were aware of the observer, this is likely to have an impact on their behaviour.

Question 17

example study of non-participant observations

Answer 17

• bandura

Question 18

advantages of covert observations (undisclosed observation)

Answer 18

• Participants are more likely to act in a genuine way as they are not aware that they are being observed.
• If the study is non-participant, data recording equipment can be used to improve accuracy.

Question 19

disadvantages of covert observations (undisclosed observation)

Answer 19

• Validity is compromised if observers are identified.
• Raises ethical questions about consent and others.
• Participant studies may have difficulty with recording data.

Question 20

example study of a covert observation

Answer 20

Piliavin

Question 21

advantages of overt observations (disclosed observation)

Answer 21

• As participants are aware of the observer, the technique becomes more ethical.

Question 22

disadvantages of overt observations (disclosed observation)

Answer 22

• Behaviour might not be ecologically valid due to the presence of an observer.

Question 23

example study of a overt observation

Answer 23

blakemore and cooper

Question 24

event sampling

Answer 24

In event sampling, the observer keeps a count of each time a particular pre-determined behaviour occurs. For example, an observer might record the number of times healthy meal options are chosen at lunchtime by (a) males and (b) females.

Question 25

time sampling

Answer 25

In time sampling, the time period to be observed is broken up into a series of time intervals, and records of behaviour are related to these time intervals.

Question 26

3 types of time sampling

Answer 26

• One-zero sampling: during each time interval, a record is made if the chosen behaviour occurs at all. No further record is made if that behaviour occurs again within that interval.
• Instantaneous scan sampling: No records are made until the end of the time interval. At this instant, a record is made of any behaviours that are occurring.
• Predominant activity sampling: Observation is continuous and an estimate is made in relation to the activity that occupied most of the preceding time interval.

Question 27

advantages + disadvantages of event sampling

Answer 27

+ It can record every occurrence of each behaviour.
+ Records are easy to obtain and to analyse as they are just totals.
- It gives no indication of time spent on each behaviour.
- No indication of the order in which events from each behavioural category occurs.

Question 28

advantages and disadvantages of time sampling

Answer 28

+ It can give an indication of chronology.
+ Instantaneous sampling, reliable.
+ One-zero scans record the occurrence of infrequent behaviour.
- Difficult to record many behaviours.
- Timings must be precise and if the timer makes noise – demand characteristics.

Question 29

ways to present data from observations

Answer 29

• pie charts
• time graphs

Question 30

ensure observation is valid